Individually tunable quantum dots in all-van der waals heterostructures

ABSTRACT

Apparatus, methods, and systems are disclosed for robust scalable topological quantum computing. Quantum dots are fabricated as van der Waals heterostructures, supporting localized topological phases and non-Abelian anyons (quasiparticles). Large bandgaps provide noise immunity. Three-dot structures include an intermediate quantum dot between two computational quantum dots. With the intermediate quantum dot in an OFF state, quasiparticles at the computational quantum dots can be isolated, with long lifetimes. Alternatively, the intermediate quantum dot can be controlled to decrease the quasiparticle tunneling barrier, enabling fast computing operations. A computationally universal suite of operations includes quasiparticle initialization, braiding, fusion, and readout of fused quasiparticle states, with, optionally, transport or tunable interactions—all topologically protected. Robust qubits can be operated without error correction. Quasilinear arrays of quantum dots or qubits can be scaled arbitrarily, up to resource limits, and large-scale topological quantum computers can be realized. Extensive two-dimensional arrays can also be used.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.63/070,115, filed on Aug. 25, 2020, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

FIELD

This application relates generally to quantum dot devices andtopological quantum computing.

SUMMARY

In brief, the disclosed technologies enable robust scalable topologicalquantum computing. Some examples of the disclosed technologies implementquantum dots as van der Waals heterostructures, to provide localizedtopological phases with which non-Abelian anyons (quasiparticles) can beimplemented. The van der Waals systems can exhibit large bandgaps andprovide noise immunity. Additional examples utilize a three-dotstructure, with an intermediate quantum dot positioned between twocomputational quantum dots. With the intermediate quantum dot in an OFFstate, quantum states encoded in quasiparticles at the computationalquantum dots can have a long lifetime, with immunity from decoherence.Alternatively, the intermediate quantum dot can be controlled to providetunneling and tunable interactions between the computational quantumdots, enabling computing operations on a practical timescale. Furtherexamples provide a suite of computational operations (includinginitialization of quasiparticles, transport, tunable interactions,braiding, fusion, and readout of fused quasiparticle states) all ofwhich are topologically protected. Still further, the disclosedtechnologies enable reliable qubits without any error correction.Additionally, quasilinear arrays of quantum dots can be organized asqubits and extended arbitrarily, limited only by constraints of space orother resources. Such features, in various combinations andsubcombinations, enable large-scale robust topological quantum computersto be realized.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as aquantum dot incorporating an all-van der Waals heterostructure. Theheterostructure can include distinct transverse van der Waals layersstacked vertically, the layer stack having, in order: a bottom electrodelayer, a bottom dielectric layer, an active layer, a top dielectriclayer, and a top electrode layer. A dot electrode can be positioned overthe top dielectric layer at an opening in the top electrode layer.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as aquantum dot array having a plurality of quantum dots including first,intermediate, and second quantum dots. These quantum dots can beindependently configurable to support a given type of non-Abelian anyonunder respective electromagnetic field environments. The intermediatequantum dot can be configurable between its respective electromagneticfield environment and an OFF state. In a first case, with the first andsecond quantum dots under their respective electromagnetic fieldenvironments and the intermediate quantum dot in the OFF state, a firsttunneling barrier for the given type of non-Abelian anyon, between thefirst quantum dot and the second quantum dot, can be above a firstlimit. In a second case, with the first and intermediate quantum dotsunder their respective electromagnetic field environments, a secondtunneling barrier for the given type of non-Abelian anyon, between thefirst quantum dot and the intermediate quantum dot, can be below asecond threshold.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as amethod of forming a heterostructure. A succession of van der Waalslayers can be formed above a substrate, the van der Waals layersincluding a bottom electrode layer, a bottom dielectric layer, an activelayer, a top dielectric layer, a top dielectric layer, and a topelectrode layer. A dot electrode can be formed at an opening in the topelectrode layer.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as aquantum computer having a coupled plurality of qubits formed as aquasilinear array of quantum dots. The quasilinear array can have anaspect ratio in a range 50:1 to 10000:1. The array of quantum dots canbe configured to support localized non-Abelian quasiparticles, and caninclude computational quantum dots and control quantum dots. Eachcontrol quantum dot can be configured to control a tunneling barrier ora tunneling amplitude between a respective pair of the computationalquantum dots.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as amethod. Signals can be applied to control electrodes of first and secondquantum dots of a qubit, to initialize first and second quasiparticles,which are non-Abelian topological quasiparticles localized at the firstand second quantum dots respectively. A voltage change can be applied toa control electrode of a third quantum dot of the qubit, positionedbetween the first quantum dot and a fourth quantum dot of the qubit, todecrease a tunneling barrier for the first quasiparticle between firstquantum dot and the fourth quantum dot and cause the first quasiparticleto be transported from the first quantum dot to the fourth quantum dot.

In certain examples, the disclosed technologies can be implemented as acomputer readable medium storing instructions which, when executed byone or more hardware processors can cause the following actions to beperformed. One or more gate voltages can be altered at a set of gates tocreate one or more first tunnel couplings between two or more quantumdots fabricated as a Van der Waals heterostructure. The first tunnelcouplings can alter energy levels of two first non-Abelianquasiparticles on the two or more quantum dots, resulting in ahybridization of quantum states in the quantum system. A hybridizationenergy of the quantum system can be measured. A joint topological chargeof the two first non-Abelian quasiparticles can be determined based onthe measured hybridization energy.

The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of theinvention will become more apparent from the following detaileddescription, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a first example heterostructure according to thedisclosed technologies.

FIG. 2 is a diagram of an example van der Waals material suitable foruse with the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 3 is a diagram of an example topological computer according to thedisclosed technologies.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of a second example heterostructure according to thedisclosed technologies.

FIG. 5 is a diagram of an example quantum dot according to the disclosedtechnologies.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart of an example method of manufacturing aheterostructure according to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 7A-7B are views of an example quantum dot array according to thedisclosed technologies.

FIGS. 8A-8D are diagrams of example extensions and groupings of thequantum dot array of FIGS. 7A-7B.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart of an example method of operating a quantum dotarray according to the disclosed technologies.

FIGS. 10A-10E are views of an example qubit computing device accordingto the disclosed technology.

FIG. 11 is a diagram of an example two-dimensional sea 1100 of quantumdots according to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 12A-12D are flowcharts of example methods of operating a qubitaccording to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 13 is a diagram illustrating an example software architecture forthe disclosed technologies.

FIG. 14A-14F are flowcharts illustrating exemplary methods correspondingto the software modules of FIG. 13.

FIG. 15 is a diagram illustrating exemplary energy profiles for twoquantum dots separated by an intermediate quantum dot according to anexample of the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 16 is a diagram illustrating an exemplary energy profile for twoquantum dots separated by multiple intermediate quantum dots accordingto another example of the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 17 is a diagram illustrating another example control electrodeconfiguration according to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 18 illustrates a generalized example of a suitable classicalcomputing environment with which aspects of the described embodimentscan be implemented.

FIG. 19 illustrates an example of a possible network topology (e.g., aclient-server network) for implementing a system according to thedisclosed technologies.

FIG. 20 illustrates another example of a possible network topology(e.g., a distributed computing environment) for implementing a systemaccording to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary system for implementing the disclosedtechnologies in which the system includes one or more classicalcomputers in communication with a quantum computing device.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Introduction

The topological approach to quantum computation employs the emergentnonlocal state spaces manifested by topological phases of matter, whichprovide a “topologically protected” way to encode and manipulate quantuminformation. Such systems suppress errors that arise from local noisesources and perturbations by a factor that is exponential in the spatialextent of the non-local states or the inverse temperature. Certain(2+1)D topological phases may support quasiparticle excitations that arenon-Abelian anyons. Such quasiparticles collectively possess amulti-dimensional topological state space and exchange operations, i.e.“braiding,” act on this state space as unitary transformations. Inaddition to performing braiding exchanges of quasiparticles byphysically transporting the quasiparticles, one can equivalentlygenerate the braiding transformations of non-Abelian anyons throughsequences of topological charge measurements or tunable interactionsacting on quasiparticles whose positions remain fixed.

Two well-known types of non-Abelian anyons are the Ising and Fibonaccianyons. Braiding transformations and topological charge measurements ofIsing anyons yield the Clifford quantum gates, which are computationallyuniversal when supplemented by any non-Clifford gate, such as then/8-phase gate. Braiding transformations of Fibonacci anyons yield acomputationally universal gate set. It is natural to search for suchanyons in fractional quantum Hall (FQH) systems, since they are the bestestablished examples of nontrivial topological phases.

II. Overview

Conventionally, quantum computing has been challenged by issues such asnoise, decoherence and, generally, lack of scalability. The disclosedtechnologies address such problems and enable robust, scalable,topological quantum computing.

In one aspect, examples of the disclosed technologies implement a vander Waals heterostructure, in which a two-dimensional electron gas(2DEG) can support non-Abelian fractional quantum Hall states. Quantumdots in such a heterostructure can localize quasiparticles (collectivemodes) of the quantum Hall states which are non-Abelian anyons. The vander Waals heterostructure can provide significantly larger bandgaps forsuch phases, compared to other attempted topological computingstructures such as GaAs. Larger bandgaps can provide improved noiseimmunity or can permit higher temperature operation with less powerconsumption required for cooling. Disclosed van der Waalsheterostructures can also provide low correlation lengths, andconsequently a significant enhanced topological protection based on thesize of a topological phase being greater than the correlation length.

In a second aspect, quantum computers based on quantum dots can haveconflicting constraints. On one hand, physical separation betweenquantum dots is desirable to provide isolation and avoid decoherence, sothat long lifetimes can be achieved for quasiparticles and qubit states.On the other hand, practical computing can require low tunnelingbarriers so that tunneling interactions occur on practical timescales,so that computing operations can be completed with high probability in ashort period of time, which favors closer packing of quantum dots.Examples of the disclosed technologies implement a basic unit of threequantum dots, in which two computational quantum dots can be separatedby an intermediate quantum dot. With the intermediate quantum dot in anOFF state, quasiparticles at the computational quantum dots can beisolated, with immunity from decoherence and a long lifetime. To effectcomputing operations, the intermediate quantum dot can be controlled todecrease a tunneling barrier and provide transport or tunableinteractions between the computational quantum dots, enabling fastcomputing operations under program control.

Generally, topological quantum computing can provide additional noiseimmunity due to quantum rules such as conservation of topologicalcharge. In the disclosed quantum dot implementations, the topologicalprotection is gained from the nonlocal nature of the collective state ofnon-Abelian anyons, where even though the individual quasiparticles arelocalized on dots, their collective state (e.g. fusion channels) arenonlocal and distributed over the extent of the entire collection ofquasiparticles. Still, in some topological quantum computers, thebenefits of topological protection can be compromised by requiring atleast one operation that is not topologically protected (such as a π/8phase gate, or T gate) in order to achieve computation universality. Insome embodiments, the disclosed technologies overcome this limitationwith a suite of operations that are computationally universal, and areall topologically protected. Such a suite can include operations forinitialization of quasiparticles, tunable interactions betweenquasiparticles, transport of quasiparticles between quantum dots,braiding of quasiparticles, fusion of quasiparticles, and readout offused quasiparticles.

Such features, singly or in combination, enable groups of quantum dotsto be used as qubits without error correction. Whereas some othertechnologies require 10, 100, or even thousands of physical qubits toimplement one reliable logical qubit, the disclosed technologies allow a1:1 correspondence between physical and logical qubits. That is, areliable logical qubit can be built from exactly one physical qubit.

Another issue for scalable quantum computing has been electricalconnectivity. In some architectures, extracting electrical leads (e.g.for control electrodes) from a crowded array of devices. In contrast,the disclosed technologies allow quasilinear arrays of quantum dots tobe organized as qubit chains of virtually unlimited length, subject toavailable space or other resource constraints. This advantage is partlydue to the feasibility of qubits that are robust without errorcorrection. Extracting electrical leads from two sides of a quasilinearqubit chain can be straightforward, and all required electricalconnectivity readily obtained.

In summary, combinations and subcombinations of these and other featuresenable construction and operation of reliable large-scale topologicalquantum computers with hundreds, thousands, or even millions of qubits.Embodiments are described in the following sections. An Appendixprovides additional technical detail.

III. Terminology

The term “aspect ratio” refers to a dimensionless ratio of a structure'ssizes in two principal directions, and commonly applies to length:widthof a quantum dot array, qubit, or array of qubits. The sizes can bespecified in physical units (e.g. nm or μm) or in structural units (e.g.a qubit of FIG. 10A can have a length of 7 quantum dots and a width of 3quantum dots, or a qubit chain can have a length of 50 qubits and awidth of 1 qubit).

A “braiding transformation” (or simply “braiding”) refers to atransformation of two or more non-Abelian quasiparticles that can beperformed in two or more different ways that have different topologicalproperties. For example, quasiparticles Q1, Q2 can be transposed by aright-hand half-twist (Q1, Q2 going clockwise relative to each other, asviewed from above) or by a left-hand half-twist (Q1, Q2 goinganti-clockwise). For non-Abelian quasiparticles, the order of operationscan be distinguished, as they effect unitary rotations in amulti-dimensional state space. Braiding can be performed by physicalmovement of the quasiparticles, but that is not a requirement. Asdescribed further herein, braiding can also be performed by suitablysequenced interaction operations or fusion channel measurements betweennon-Abelian quasiparticles. Braiding transformations can be successivelycombined, e.g. a half-twist of Q1, Q2 followed by a half-twist of Q2 andQ3, to result in braids of three or more quasiparticles resemblingeveryday examples such as braids of rope or hair.

“Computation operations” refer to actions performed on qubits to read,write, or modify the qubit state. In examples, a qubit can be written(initialized) by controlling physical components of the qubit (e.g.quantum dots) to render splitting of a vacuum state into twocomplementary quasiparticles energetically favorable. In other examples,a qubit can be written by waiting for a thermal fluctuation to populatethe quantum dots. In further examples, a qubit can be written (ormodified) by interaction with another qubit. In examples, a qubit can beread by measuring capacitance during fusion of two quasiparticles, andinferring the energy of the fused quasiparticle and its fusion statetherefrom. A qubit can be modified by operations (collectively,“modification operations”) including transport of one quasiparticle,interaction of two quasiparticles, or fusion of two quasiparticles.Modification operations can be performed within a single qubit (e.g.between one or more quasiparticles initially localized at respectivequantum dots of the qubit) or between two qubits. Embodiments of thedisclosed technologies need not support all of these modificationoperations, or can support alternative computational operations. Afusion operation can be utilized for modification or for reading. Thedescribed modification operations can be regarded as elementaryoperations from which successively more complex operations (e.g.braiding) can be built. Not all of transport, tunable interactions, andfusion are required for computational universality. Fusion can beretained for purpose of reading a qubit while, in some examples, one orboth of transport or tunable interactions can be omitted. Transportoperations are denoted D1→D2 with reference to the quantum dots betweenwhich the transport occurs. Tunable interactions are denoted D1↔D2 orQ1↔Q2 for quasiparticles Q1, Q2 on dots D1, D2. Fusion operations aredenoted as Q1⊗Q2 between quasiparticles. In some instances, fusionoperations are denoted D1⊗D2 referring to fusion of quasiparticlesinitially localized on quantum dots D1, D2.

The term “computationally universal” refers to a set of operations thatcan transform one or more qubits from any initial state (e.g. α|0

+β|1

for a single qubit) to any final state (e.g. α′|0

+β′|1

), within a specified tolerance, in a finite number of operations. Inthis way, the available state space (e.g. α, β) can be denselypopulated, leading to more efficient quantum computation.

The terms “dielectric” and “insulator” refer to materials which, in bulkform, have a gap greater than kT between their valence and conductionbands, where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolutetemperature. Because of this property, valence electrons cannot movefreely through the bulk material. Such materials are generallyelectrically insulating. The term is understood to refer to propertiesof material at room temperature (300 K) and normal pressure (1 atm)where disclosed devices can be manufactured, which may differ fromproperties of the material in a cryogenic environment where discloseddevices maybe used.

An “electrode” is an electrically conducting component of a structurethat serves as an interface between another electrically conductingcomponent (e.g. an electrical lead or wire) and a less conductingcomponent, such as a dielectric layer of a van der Waalsheterostructure. Some electrodes of interest in this disclosure are theelectrodes of top and bottom electrode layers in a van der Waalsheterostructure, and a control electrode for a quantum dot (dubbed “dotelectrode”) positioned at an opening in an electrode, or betweenmultiple electrodes, in the top electrode layer. The active layer of avan der Waals heterostructure can also be an electrode. The term “gate,”as a noun, can be used as an alternative to electrode.

The term “energy profile” refers to the dependence of potential energy(sometimes, “chemical potential”), for a quasiparticle, along a spatialcoordinate. An energy profile can have a well (“potential well”,“pinning potential”) in which case a quasiparticle having energy lessthan the depth of the well can be localized in the well. An energyprofile can have a “barrier” where the potential energy exceeds theenergy of the quasiparticle. The quasiparticle can tunnel through abarrier with an interaction strength dependent on the height and widthof the barrier. An energy profile can be “monotonic” between two points,i.e. non-increasing or non-decreasing, indicating an absence of a localpotential well in which the quasiparticle can be localized or trapped.Some illustrative energy profiles that can be employed are describedbelow in context of FIG. 15.

The terms “environmental condition” or “electromagnetic fieldenvironment” refer to macroscopic properties such as electric ormagnetic fields (or, for environmental condition, also temperature) thatcan affect the behavior of a device such as a quantum dot or an activelayer in a van der Waals heterostructure. Particularly, the carrierdensity in the active layer can be determined by the sum of voltagesVT+VB on top and bottom electrodes relative to a grounded active layer.Together with an applied magnetic field, the electric field at theactive layer (determined by difference in voltages VT−VB) can determinethe existence of a desired fractional quantum Hall state. Further, acontrol voltage applied to a dot electrode can develop a potential wellrelative to surrounding regions in which a topological phase (e.g. in anon-Abelian fractional quantum Hall state) can be stably localized.

The term “fusion” refers to making a measurement by coalescing of two ormore quasiparticles into a single quasiparticle, e.g. throughhybridization of their waveforms. Because of quantum conservation rules,fusion between two quasiparticles can be limited to a finite number ofpossibilities (“channels”) having respective probabilities ofoccurrence. In some examples, the channel actually followed can bedetermined e.g. by measurement of a capacitance, but this is not arequirement. However, a “fusion channel measurement” does not requirecoalescing of the interacting quasiparticles.

A “fusion rule” is a specification of topological charge values c intowhich a pair of given topological charges a, b can fuse. Particularly,fusion a×b can follow pathways to one or more topological charge valuesc according to Equation (1).

a×b=Σ _(c) N _(ab) ^(c) ·c.  (1)

The coefficient N_(ab) ^(c)≠0 for allowed fusion products c, and is zerootherwise.

“Graphite” is an allotrope of carbon that is a van der Waals materialwith hexagonal crystalline planes of covalently bonded carbon atoms.“Graphene” refers to a thin sheet of graphite having 1-4 such planes(levels) of covalently bonded carbon atoms. Bilayer graphene, used insome disclosed embodiments, has two monolayers and a thickness of about0.8 nm. Like common graphite, the two monolayers can have a transverseoffset denoted as “Bernal stacking”, but this is not a requirement.

The term “heterostructure” refers to a device or structure havinginhomogeneous composition, i.e. with constituent parts (often, layers)formed of distinct materials. Of interest in this disclosure areheterostructures formed of “van der Waals” materials.

The term “hybridization” refers to a coherent superposition of quantummechanical states between two quasiparticles or other entities.

In the context of heterostructures or quantum dots, the term “layer”refers to a component of the heterostructure or quantum dot,predominantly extending in two directions (e.g. transverse plane) with asmall thickness (e.g. in a vertical direction) and having generallyhomogeneous composition. Some layers can have transverse structurewithin the layer, for example an aperture or gap which can be vacant orfilled with a dissimilar material. Some layers herein are van der Waalslayers, however the term extends to other materials as well. Inasmuch asvan der Waals materials can have different properties in a basal planeand in an orthogonal direction, a layer need not be isotropic. A layerneed not be flat, but can be shaped e.g. to conform with an underlyingsubstrate. Layers of interest in some disclosed devices include activelayers, dielectric layers, and electrode layers. An “active layer” isone that can define a collective state supporting a non-Abeliantopological phase, such as a fractional quantum Hall state in atwo-dimensional electron gas. Example active layers can beBernal-stacked bilayer graphene, but this is not a requirement andmonolayer graphene or a transition metal dichalcogenide (“TMD”) such asMoS₂ can also be used. A “dielectric layer” is formed of a dielectricmaterial, such as hexagonal BN or a TMD. An “electrode layer” is formedof an electrically conductive material and can be formed as a singleelectrode (with optional apertures) or as a pattern of multipleelectrodes.

A “metal” is a material which, in bulk form, has overlapping valence andconduction bands. Because of this property, valence electrons can movefreely through the bulk material. Such materials are generallyelectrically conductive. The term is understood to refer to propertiesof material at room temperature (300 K) and normal pressure (1 atm)where disclosed devices can be manufactured, which may differ fromproperties of the material in a cryogenic environment where discloseddevices maybe used.

The term “non-Abelian” refers to phases, states, or quasiparticles forwhich operations are not commutative. Non-Abelian phases, states, orquasiparticles have advantageous properties for quantum computing.

A “quantum dot” (or simply “dot”) is a device having inhomogeneousstructure in one dimension defining macroscopically accessible quantumstates, and a homogeneous structure with finite extent (hence,designated as a dot) in other dimensions. The finite extent of thehomogeneous structure can limit a finite extent of the quantum states,and can be defined by features in one or a few layers of the quantumdots (such as an aperture in a top electrode layer, or a finite controlelectrode), while other layers of the structure extend beyond suchfeatures. Example quantum computing apparatus described hereinincorporate arrays of quantum dots, which can be used to localize andstore quasiparticles, or to perform computation operations withquasiparticles. Disclosed qubits can incorporate quantum dots havingdifferent roles. “Computational quantum dots” can collectively define aqubit state, and can persistently store quasiparticles betweencomputation operations, across multiple computation operations, orsimply as storage. “Ancillary quantum dots” can store quasiparticles andcan facilitate computation operations, without being part of a qubit'sstate. “Intermediate quantum dots” can be used to control tunnelingbarriers between the computational or ancillary quantum dots, or betweenthe intermediate quantum dot and another quantum dot. In some examples,an intermediate quantum dot can be configured to have a potential welland can provide transient storage of a quasiparticle. Two quantum dotsare said to be “coupled” if the tunneling barrier between them is belowa threshold. The threshold can be based on a requirement for practicalcomputation operations, viz. a predetermined high probability that theoperation completes in a predetermined small amount of time. Two quantumdots are said to be isolated if the tunneling barrier between them isabove a limit. The limit can be based on a predetermined lifetime. Toillustrate, a lifetime of 10⁷ s can correspond to a likelihood of 10⁻⁷per second that a given tunneling interaction occurs. In some disclosedexamples, quantum dot phenomena can be localized effects in an activelayer of an all-van der Waals heterostructure.

The term “quasilinear” refers to a structure that can be extended byreplication in one direction (referred to as its “length”) without anychange to its size in other directions (which can be “width” orthickness). Terms like length and width may also be used in othercontexts, in their common meaning.

A “quasiparticle” is a collective mode of physical particles whichexhibits particle-like properties. Particularly, due to quantumconservation rules, macroscopic properties can be conserved (e.g.topological charge, or electrical charge). Quasiparticles can interactwith other quasiparticles according to predetermined rules. Somequasiparticles of interest in this disclosure are non-Abelian anyons.Where used without qualification, the term quasiparticle refers to anon-Abelian quasiparticle.

A “qubit” or “quantum bit” is a device storing an elemental unit ofquantum information. A qubit can have two basis states denoted |0

and |1

, similar to the 0, 1 states of a conventional data bit. However, unlikea conventional bit, a qubit can exist in a linear superposition of itsbasis states, denoted α|0

+β|1

, where α, β are represent a point on a unit sphere. A qubit can referto a physical qubit, which is a hardware device storing an elementalunit of quantum information, or it can refer to a logical qubit, whichis a logical device providing reliable storage of an elemental unit ofquantum information to a quantum computing program. Because someimplementations of quantum computers are prone to errors from noise anddecoherence, such quantum computers can employ sophisticated errorcorrection (e.g. stabilizer codes) to present a reliable logical qubitto a program, using e.g. additional physical qubits for errorcorrection. Where used without qualification, the term qubit refers to aphysical qubit although, as described further herein, physical andlogical qubits can be identical in some embodiments of the disclosedtechnologies. Two qubits are “coupled” if quantum interactions can beperformed between them, in a chain through other qubits as needed. A setof qubits is coupled if every pair of the set is coupled. In contextsother than coupled quantum dots or coupled qubits (e.g. electricalcircuit components or thermal coupling), “couple” can retain itsordinary meaning. Like bits of a conventional non-quantum computer, aqubit can be utilized for memory or storage, or as computation data(e.g. as a register).

The term “spacer” refers to a component of a structure that maintainsphysical separation between two other components of the structure.Commonly, a spacer can be a dielectric material placed between twoconductive materials, but this is not a requirement.

The term “stack” describes a three-dimensional structure in whichdistinct and generally planar functional units are situated one aboveanother.

The term “state” refers to a characterization of a qubit, aquasiparticle, or a quantum dot that is sufficient to determine itsbehavior or probabilities of measurement outcomes. For example, aqubit's state can be represented as α|0

+β|1

, or a quasiparticle's state can be represented as a charge q and atopological charge c. In disclosed examples, a quantum dot with apinning potential can exist in a superposition of eigenstatescorresponding to respective quasiparticles. Some of these eigenstates orquasiparticles can have an energy below the energy gap of an instantdevice and can be retained for analyzing or describing operations orproperties of the quantum dot. Other eigenstates can have energy levelsabove the energy gap of the instant device and can be omitted whileanalyzing or describing computation operations or modificationoperations of the instant device. Particularly, superposition of stateswith different topological charge values can often rapidly decohere dueto local noise.

A “substrate” is a layer supporting a heterostructure or other device.Generally, a substrate is not electrically functional, although it canhave capacitance, resistance, or parasitic electrical properties. Asubstrate can be thermally functional, providing heat conduction orserving as a cold finger. In common examples of the disclosedtechnologies, a substrate can be positioned below a quantum computingdevice, but this is not a requirement, and inverted geometries can alsobe used.

The “thickness” of a layer or component (e.g. a component of aheterostructure) is its extent in the vertical direction (i.e. withreference to the definition of top, etc.).

The terms “top,” “bottom,” “up,” “down,” “above,” “below,” “transverse,”“vertical” and the like are used for convenience, with respect to acommon configuration in which a control electrode is at the top, and anactive layer or a stack of van der Waals layers is below the controlelectrode. In such a configuration, transverse refers to the horizontal,i.e. parallel to a given heterostructure layer, and heterostructurelayers can be stacked vertically one above another. One of ordinaryskill will understand from this disclosure that a choice of actualorientation can be varied without departing from the scope of thedisclosed technologies. Often, a substrate is situated at the bottom ofa heterostructure layer stack, but this is not a requirement.

A “topological phase” is a phase of matter characterized by collectivebehavior of atomic or subatomic particles (e.g. a two-dimensionalelectron gas) and emergent conserved quantum numbers which can bedenoted “topological charges.” Rules applicable to the conserved quantumnumbers result in robustness to local perturbations. Of interest indisclosed examples are non-Abelian topological phases which haveproperties useful for quantum computation. Some fractional quantum Hallstates (e.g. of an active layer in a van der Waals heterostructure) cansupport non-Abelian topological phases as described in some examples.Quasiparticles of a topological phase can be localized at a quantum dot.

The “transverse extent” of a structure is its extent in a transversedirection (i.e. horizontal, with reference to the definition of top,etc.) Often, structures can have a major transverse extent which is thelargest value of transverse extent in any transverse direction, and aminor transverse extent which is the smallest value of transverse extentin any transverse direction.

“Tunable interaction” refers to an interaction between quasiparticles inwhich the degree of interaction can be varied. For example, a tunnelingbarrier between quantum dots on which the quasiparticles are localizedcan be decreased to varying degrees to control the degree ofinteraction. A time duration for which the tunneling barrier isdecreased can also be controlled. In some disclosed examples, thetunneling barrier can be controlled by varying one or more voltagesapplied to dot electrodes. With reference to FIG. 15, energy profiles1530, 1532, 1534 illustrate examples of controlling a dot electrodevoltage on intermediate quantum dot DX 1514 to vary the tunnelingbarrier between computational quantum dots D1 1512, D2 1516 in athree-dot geometry. A tunneling barrier can also be controlled byvarying dot electrode voltages on the quantum dots on which thequasiparticles are localized, e.g. D1, D2 in FIG. 15. To illustrate, theenergy profiles 1530, 1540 can have distinct tunneling barriers and,accordingly, tunable interactions can be implemented in a two-dotgeometry having no intermediate quantum dot DX.

“Tunneling” refers to a process whereby quasiparticle at one quantum dotcan interact with or move to another quantum dot. Often, tunnelinginvolves penetration through a potential barrier exceeding the energy ofthe quasiparticle, but the term can be extended to situations where thepotential barrier is completely removed and the particle can travelfreely to a region of lower potential energy.

A “tunneling barrier” can be a function used to quantify tunneling for agiven quasiparticle between respective states at initial and finallocations, and can depend on exemplary factors such as a height of apotential barrier between the initial and final locations, a separationdistance between the initial and final locations, or an energydifference between the quasiparticle states at the initial and finallocations. Particularly, a tunneling barrier can be decreased bydecreasing the height of the potential barrier between the initial andfinal locations, or by decreasing the separation distance between theinitial and final locations. Alternatively, the tunneling barrier can bevaried by changing the energy of at least one of the states at theinitial or final location (which can affect the energy favorability ofan instant tunneling interaction or transport event). Controlling atunneling barrier extends to complete removal of a potential barrier (inwhich case the tunneling barrier can be regarded as zero for anytemporal duration, subject to a favorable energy profile), or to theconverse process. Tunneling can alternatively be quantified in terms ofa “tunneling amplitude”, which is a coefficient representative of anamplitude of a waveform of a quasiparticle in a tunneling region (i.e. aregion where an energy potential exceeds the quasiparticle energy), orin terms of a “tunneling probability”, which can be specified as thelikelihood, per unit time, of a tunneling event (e.g. transport orinteraction). Particularly, a tunneling barrier above a predeterminedfirst limit can ensure that a quasiparticle lifetime requirement is met,while a tunneling barrier below a second threshold can ensure that arequired cycle time for quantum computation operations is met. Whendistance r between two quasiparticles is much greater than coherencelength ξ of the quasiparticles, tunneling amplitude Γ can beexponentially suppressed, i.e. Γ˜exp(−r/ξ).

A “van der Waals” material is a material composed of one or more levelsof covalently bonded atoms having van der Waals bonds between successivelevels. While some van der Waals materials have a planar arrangement ofatoms in a given level, this is not a requirement, and some van derWaals materials of interest such as MoS₂ can have a level structureresembling a corrugated sheet. A plane of covalently bonded atoms in avan der Waals material is dubbed a “basal plane”. In materials havingnon-planar levels, the basal plane can be a medial plane of a covalentlybonded level.

A “van der Waals heterostructure” having one or more internal layersbetween two electrode layers, all of which incorporate van der Waalsmaterials. In some examples, disclosed van der Waals heterostructureshave three internal van der Waals layers: an active layer and twoelectrically insulating layers spacing the active layer from each of theelectrode layers. The term “all-van der Waals heterostructure” refers toheterostructures having no non-van der Waals materials between theelectrode layers. References to van der Waals heterostructures hereinare understood to apply also to all-van der Waals heterostructures. Avan der Waals heterostructure can have apertures or gaps in an electrodelayer. An electrically functional device component (e.g. a controlelectrode) can be located within or above an aperture in a top electrodelayer of a van der Waals heterostructure, and need not be composed of avan der Waals material. An aperture in an electrode layer of a van derWaals heterostructure can also be filled with a non-van der Waalsmaterial.

IV. First Example Device

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view 100 of a first example heterostructure.The illustrated heterostructure comprises a vertical stack of van derWaals layers, topped by a control electrode.

Active layer 106 can be positioned between bottom electrode layer 102and top electrode layer 110, and separated from the electrode layers102, 110 by bottom dielectric layer 104 and top dielectric layer 108respectively. Top electrode layer 110 can have an aperture 170, abovewhich a control electrode 114 can be situated. A gap between electrodes114, 110 allows independent control of electrodes 114, 110. In someexamples, electrically insulating material in the form of spacer 112 canmaintain the gap between electrodes 114, 110. Layers 102, 104, 106, 108,1110 can all be van der Waals layers as described herein. In someexamples, one or both of spacer 112 and dot electrode 114 can also bevan der Waals layers, so that the device illustrated in FIG. 1 iscomposed of van der Waals materials, however this is not a requirement.

Active layer 106 can support non-Abelian topological phases, which canbe realized through application of suitable electric or magnetic fieldsto the active layer. A magnetic field can be developed externally, asdescribed further herein, while electric fields can be developed throughapplication of suitable voltages to electrodes of electrode layers 102,110, active layer 106, and/or dot electrode 114.

In some examples, the active layer 106 can be a graphene bilayer, whilein other examples the active layer 106 can be monolayer graphene, or atransition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) with good electrical conductivityor electron mobility parallel to the basal plane. The bottom or topelectrode layers 102, 110 can be graphite. In some examples, electrodelayers 102, 110 can be single electrodes, while in other examples, oneor each of electrode layers 102, 110 can include a plurality ofpatterned electrodes distinct from one another. The bottom or topdielectric layers 104, 108 can be hexagonal boron nitride, which hasadvantageous properties of large bandgap (about 5-6 eV), low electricalconductivity, and high thermal conductivity. However, this is not arequirement, and one or both dielectric layers 104, 108 canalternatively incorporate other materials, such as a TMD with electricalinsulating properties orthogonal to the basal plane.

One, some, or all of van der Waals layers 102, 104, 106, 108, 110 can beoriented with transverse basal planes, i.e. basal planes parallel to thelayers. Where two adjacent layers have transverse basal planes, thedissimilar materials can adhere to one another through van der Waalsattraction, even if the lattice constants are unequal or the basalplanes are rotated (within the transverse plane) relative to oneanother.

The illustrated heterostructure can have symmetry about centerline 174.As examples, aperture 170 and dot electrode 114 can both be circular orcan both be oval when viewed from above. In other examples, aperture 170can be circular or oval while electrode 114 can be square orrectangular. As illustrated, electrode 114 has a transverse extentbeyond the perimeter of aperture 170, but this is not a requirement, andin other examples, the transverse extent of electrode 114 can be smallerin area or can lie within the transverse extent of aperture 170.

The dot electrode 114 can be metal, graphite, or a van der Waalsmaterial common with the top electrode layer 110. The spacer 112 can beboron nitride, another electrically insulating material, or a van derWaals material common with the top dielectric layer 108.

V. Example Van Der Waals Material

FIG. 2 is a diagram 200 of an example van der Waals material suitablefor use with the disclosed technologies. Basal plane 210 has a hexagonalstructure, with atoms (not shown) at each vertex of the hexagons, andcovalent bonds among neighboring atoms as shown by the edges of thehexagons. Basal plane 220 is similar, positioned directly above plane210, that is, with atoms 221-223 directly above atoms 211-213 of plane210, as shown by dashed lines. The vertical separation between planes210, 220 has been exaggerated in FIG. 2 for clarity of illustration.

The configuration illustrated is Bernal stacking, where the hexagonalpatterns of planes 210, 220 are offset from one another and atom 224 ispositioned above the open center of a hexagon in plane 210 rather thanabove another atom. However, Bernal stacking is not a requirement andother stacking configurations can be used.

FIG. 2 also depicts a crystal structure in each plane 210, 220 as formedof regular planar hexagons, as found in numerous materials includinggraphite, graphene, or hexagonal boron nitride. However, this is not arequirement. A van der Waals material such as MoS₂ can have a monolayerof non-planar hexagons, with a basal plane of Mo atoms sandwichedbetween vertically offset planes of S atoms. Phosphorene can incorporatetwisted hexagons, with P atoms in two planes vertically offset from amedial basal plane. Borophene can have a triangular structure ofcovalently bonded B atoms.

VI. Example Topological Quantum Computer

FIG. 3 is a diagram of an example topological computer 300 according tothe disclosed technologies. The illustrated computer 300 has a computingstructure mounted within a cryogenic apparatus, along with supportequipment, control equipment (including for computing operations), and auser interface.

Processor 310 can incorporate an array of heterostructures, quantumdots, or qubits as disclosed herein (such as in context of FIGS. 1, 4,5, 7A-7B, 8A-8D, 10A-10E, 11, 17) with electrical leads through whichrequisite static or dynamic voltages can be applied, for initializingqubit states, performing computing operations, or reading out states.Computing structure 310 can be mounted on a carrier 320. In addition tomechanical support, carrier 320 can provide electrical connectivitybetween external wiring and the electrical leads of processor 310.Carrier 320 can also serve as a thermal sink to maintain processor 310at its target temperature which can be below 1 K, or in a range 10-100mK in some examples. For example, carrier 320 can be a cold finger.

Processor 310 and carrier 320 can be mounted within a cryostat havingtemperature regulated frames 330, 340, 350, 360. While four frames 330,340, 350, 360 are illustrated, this is not a requirement, and more orfewer frames can be used, as indicated by ellipses (“ . . . ”) betweenframes 330, 340, 350, 360. An innermost frame 330 can be maintained at 1K or below. The outer frame 360 can be a room temperature enclosure. Infurther examples, frames 340, 350 or other frames can be maintained at 4K, 10-20 K, or 77 K by refrigerator 372. Thermal couplings 324, 334provide heat extraction from carrier 320 and frames 330, 340, 350 asshown. In varying examples, one, some, or all of frames 330, 340, 350can be partial enclosures (e.g. baffles) or full enclosures (withpenetrations for refrigeration or electrical functions).

Electrical interfaces 332, 342, 352, 362 provide coupling of electricalsignals into or out from carrier 320 and processor 310. Electricalinterfaces 332, 342, 352, 362 can provide DC or AC electrical couplingbetween interior and exterior sides of frames 330, 340, 350, 360, or canprovide additional functions. In some examples, an interface at anintermediate temperature (e.g. 77 K) can include an auxiliary processoror controller to provide low-level control or readout functions to orfrom processor 310.

Processor 310 can be immersed in a magnetic field 378 provided byexternal magnets 376. In some examples, magnetic fields 378 in a range5-20 T, or 10-15 T can be used. The illustrated topological computer 300can incorporate power supplies 374 to provide the electrical powerrequired by subsystems of computer 300, such as refrigerator 372,magnets 376, computer control electronics 380, system controller 384, orother support or monitoring equipment not expressly shown in FIG. 3.

Computer control electronics 380 can provide the dynamic signaling toexecute computing operations on processor 310, while system controller384 can provide control of environmental conditions of processor 310(e.g. voltages on van der Waals electrode layers and an active layer asdescribed in context of FIG. 1). In addition to environmental control ofprocessor 310, system controller can also control or monitor otherequipment such as refrigerator 372, power supplies 374, or magnets 376(control paths not shown). In turn, computer controller 380 and systemcontroller 384 can be configured or monitored from a user interface 390,which can be a display or remote terminal. Computer control electronics380 or system controller 384 can each embody some of the functions of QPsubcontroller(s) 2104 of FIG. 21 discussed below.

In some examples, computer controller 380 can control dot electrodes ofdisclosed heterostructures to initialize non-Abelian topological phaseson qubits of processor 310, to perform modification operations on one ormore of the qubits, or to read fusion outputs of one or more of thequbits.

Topological computer 300 can be configured to execute a client user'scomputer program. The user's programming instructions can be compiled oradapted for the topological computer by a software stack 382. In someexamples, a stack similar to Microsoft Azure® Quantum stack can be used.

The illustration of FIG. 3 is illustrative. Particularly, in someembodiments one or more components illustrated can be omitted, or othercomponents can be added.

VII. Second Example Device

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view 400 of a second example heterostructureaccording to the disclosed technologies. The second heterostructure isgenerally similar to the heterostructure of FIG. 1, with active layer406 separated from parallel electrode layers 402, 410 by dielectriclayers 404, 408. Similar considerations can be applied to each of theselayers as described for the layers of FIGS. 1, 5, or elsewhere in thisdisclosure.

Distinguished from FIG. 1, control electrode 414 is positioned in a sameplane as top electrode 410. In some examples, control electrode 414 canbe formed as part of a common layer with top electrode 410, subsequentlyseparated by an annular etch around electrode 414. The annular etch canbe filled with an electrically insulating spacer 412. In other examples,spacer 412 can be formed above dielectric layer 408, prior to depositionof electrically conductive material of electrodes 410, 414. Otherfeatures of control electrode 414 and spacer 412 can follow thosedescribed for dot electrode 114 or spacer 112 herein.

Layers 402, 404, 406, 408, 410, and electrode 414 can be van der Waalsmaterials as described herein. Spacer 412 can be a bulk material or avan der Waals material.

Similar to FIG. 1, control electrode 414 can have symmetry aboutcenterline 474. In varying examples, the top view of control electrode414 can be circular, elliptical, square or rectangular. The lattershapes can optionally have beveled or rounded corners.

VIII. Third Example Device

FIG. 5 is a diagram 500 of an example quantum dot according to thedisclosed technologies. The illustrated quantum dot can be based on astructure similar to the heterostructures of FIG. 1 or 4. A van derWaals active layer 506 is shown separated from parallel van der Waalselectrodes 502, 510 by van der Waals dielectric layers 504, 508. Dotelectrode 514 is shown situated above aperture 570 in the top electrode510, and separated from top electrode 510 by electrically insulatingspacer layer 512. Active layer 506 can be a graphene bilayer or anotherelectrically conductive van der Waals material as described herein.Dielectric layers 504, 508 can be boron nitride or another electricallyinsulating van der Waals material as described herein. Electrodes 502,510 can be graphite or another electrically conductive van der Waalsmaterial as described herein. Dot electrode 514 can be metal, graphite,or another electrically conductive van der Waals material as describedherein. Other considerations can be applicable to the illustratedlayers, or to electrode 514, as described for corresponding items ofFIGS. 1, 4, or elsewhere in this disclosure.

In examples featuring a TMD material for active layer 506, the thickness526 of active layer 506 can be in a range 1-20 nm, or 2-10 nm. Agraphene bilayer has a thickness 526 of about 0.8 nm. The thicknesses524, 528 of dielectric layers 504, 508 can be independently selected andcan be in a range 10-200 nm, 20-100 nm, or about 50 nm. The thicknesses522, 530, 534 of electrodes 502, 510, 514 can be independently selectedand can be in a range 2-100 nm, 3-30 nm, or about 10 nm. In variationswhere an electrode 502, 510, 514 is graphene, the correspondingelectrode thickness 522, 530 can be in a range 0.3-2 nm. For example,the thicknesses of 1-4 layer graphenes are about 0.3, 0.8, 1.3, and 1.8nm respectively. Spacer 512 can have a thickness 532 in a range 1-10 nmor 2-5 nm.

The illustrated device also incorporates electrical leads 542, 546, 550,554 respectively coupled to electrically conducting layers 502, 506,510, and dot electrode 514, whereby suitable voltages VB, VA, VT, VD canbe applied to the illustrated device from respective external powersupplies 552, 556, 560, 564 as shown. In some examples, voltages VB, VA,VT can be steady voltages selected to configure a two-dimensionalelectron gas in active layer 506, while voltage VD can be dynamicallycontrolled to effect initialization of a non-Abelian quasiparticlelocalized at the illustrated quantum dot, modification operations withsuch quasiparticle, or readout of such quasiparticle, e.g. via a fusionoperation. Relative to VA, voltages VB, VT, VD can be in the tens ofvolts, commonly in a range 2-100 V, 5-50 V, or 10-30 V. In someexamples, VA can be local or system ground, i.e. 0 V.

The illustrated device has a substrate layer 516 for mechanical supportof the other layers. Substrate 516 can incorporate silicon, silica (e.g.quartz), or other suitable cryogenic substrate materials. Substrate 516can also support electrical leads 542, 546, 550, or 554, for examplebeyond a transverse extent of the layers 502, 506, or 510. However,substrate 516 is not a requirement and, in other examples, the layersfrom bottom electrode layer 502 to dot electrode 514 can be mounted in aflip-chip style below a top-side substrate (not shown), with or withoutthe illustrated bottom-side substrate 516.

Transverse dimensions are related to process limitations (e gmanufacturing feature size of at least about 10 nm or spacing of atleast about 10 nm based on present technologies); desired proximity (forefficient tunneling) or separation (for isolation and long lifetime)between quantum dots; or desired transverse extent of a quasiparticle(larger size offering greater topological protection against e.g.thermal noise).

IX. First Example Method

FIG. 6 is a flowchart 600 of an example method of manufacturing aheterostructure according to the disclosed technologies. In this method,a van der Waals layer stack and a dot electrode are formed as aheterostructure similar to those described in context of FIGS. 1, 4, 5,or elsewhere herein.

At process block 610, a succession of van der Waals layers are formedabove a substrate. These van der Waals layers can include a bottomelectrode layer, a bottom dielectric layer, an active layer, a topdielectric layer, and a top electrode layer. The active layer canincorporate a material (e.g. bilayer graphene) that can supportnon-Abelian topological phases.

At process block 620, a dot electrode can be formed at an opening in thetop electrode layer. In some examples, the opening can be etched in thetop electrode layer and a spacer can be formed above the top electrodelayer (and within the opening) prior to formation of the dot electrode.

Numerous variations and extensions can be implemented within the scopeof disclosed technologies. In some examples, the van der Waals layerscan be formed in order (starting with bottom electrode layer, thenbottom dielectric layer, active layer, top dielectric layer, and topelectrode layer, in that order) on top of a substrate. In otherexamples, the van der Waals layers can be assembled in the oppositeorder (starting with top electrode layer and ending with bottomelectrode layer) on a temporary substrate, and then transferred onto apermanent substrate below the bottom electrode. In further examples, asubset of layers (e.g. a dielectric layer and an active layer) can bepre-assembled and transferred as a group atop other layers (e.g. thebottom electrode layer or the bottom dielectric layer). Other sequencesof forming operations can also be used.

Numerous techniques are available for formation or assembly of the vander Waals layer stack. In some examples, layers can be laminated oneabove the other. For example, a given layer can be exfoliated onto anadhesive stamp and transferred onto a partially assembledheterostructure (or, onto the substrate). Van der Waals attractionbetween planes of a van der Waals material (weaker than covalent bondingwithin a plane) permits clean separation of exfoliated layers. Van derWaals attraction between dissimilar materials results in high qualitybonded interfaces between the layers, which can be free of impurities orimperfections. The lamination process can use a dry transfer processes,e.g. using mechanical peel-off of a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) transfersheet. In other examples, the lamination process can employ a wettransfer process, e.g. using a transfer sheet coated with awater-soluble polymer and water as a separation agent, or awater-insoluble polymer with acetone or another organic solvent as aseparation agent.

Other fabrication techniques can also be used, such as chemical vapordeposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD), or epitaxial growth.Fabrication techniques can be combined. For example, the van der Waalslayer stack can be assembled using a successive lamination process, aspacer above the top electrode layer can be formed by vapor deposition,and the dot electrode can be formed by a lithographic process, or by acombination of coating and etching. In examples having a non-metallicdot electrode, the dot electrode can be formed by epitaxially growing,laminating, or depositing the non-metallic material. A layer of thenon-metallic material can be etched to delineate a perimeter of the dotelectrode.

Lithographic processes for conventional microelectronics are generallyapplicable to disclosed devices. Particularly, the same equipment can beused. Similar to conventional microelectronics, process recipes can betailored to the particular device being fabricated. Bond wires or edgeconnectors can be used to extend electrical connectivity off the devicefrom on-device leads or electrodes.

The fabricated heterostructure can be a quantum dot, or can havefeatures described herein, e.g. in context of FIGS. 1, 4, 5, orelsewhere herein. The method of FIG. 6 can be extended to formation of asecond dot electrode above a second opening in the top electrode layer,and formation of a third dot electrode above a third opening in the topelectrode layer. The third dot electrode can be situated between theinitial dot electrode formed at block 620 and the second dot electrode,resulting in a quantum dot array. The quantum dot array can havefeatures as described herein, e.g. in context of FIGS. 7, 8, orelsewhere herein.

1. Manufacture of an Array of Individually Controllable Quantum Dots

An array of controllable quantum dots in an all-vdW grapheneheterostructure can be constructed in the following manner First, a vdWdouble-gated device (e.g. similar to device 100 of FIG. 1) can befabricated consisting of the following layers: a graphite bottom gate(102), a boron nitride (BN) spacer (104) of thickness d≈50 nm, Bernalstacked bilayer (106) graphene (dubbed BLG; this layer hosts an FQHstate), a second BN spacer (108, also having thickness about d), and agraphite top gate (110) in which an array of holes (170) has beenpre-etched. These holes can define the locations of the quantum dots inthe BLG layer. A thin layer of BN (112, having thickness d′) can then bedeposited over the top gate. In some examples, individual metallic gates(114, dot gates) can then be fabricated over each hole by conventionalelectron beam lithography and standard deposition techniques. In otherexamples, an additional layer of graphite can be processed subtractivelyto form the dot gates (114).

Each dot gate can be used to create a local electrostatic potential wellin the BLG layer whose depth can be controlled in-situ via the appliedvoltage. While the metal contact of a particular dot gate can extendacross the device, its effect in the BLG layer is screened by the topgate, except in the region below the hole etched out of the top gate.Thus, the electrostatic influence of the dot gate in the FQH state canbe restricted to the region defined by the etched hole of an instantquantum dot.

The two different approaches to dot gate manufacture have respectiveadvantages. With fabrication of a device with d′<<d is morestraightforward with the metal dot gate approach, graphite dot gatesoffer other advantages. With d′<<d, the screening environment for theBLG will be identical in the bulk material between dots and at thetransverse position of a dot. Thus, when the dot gate voltage VD equalsthe top gate voltage VT, the electrostatic field at the dot will beunperturbed and electron-electron interactions in the BLG will betransversely uniform across the transverse area of the dot and itssurrounding region. This ensures that the dot can be brought to an OFFstate in which the uniform FQH state exists (without a localizedquasiparticle excitation) across the transverse position of the dot andits immediate vicinity. Using BN as the spacer, d′ can be made as thinas 2-5 nm.

In some examples, FQH states are exhibited in devices having d >10 nm(and up to about 50 nm, 100 nm, or 200 nm). Thus, transverse extent R onthe order of several tens of nanometers can be achieved, which is on theorder of the achievable correlation length of a localized quasiparticle.

X. Example Quantum Dot Array

FIG. 7A-7B are views 701, 702 of an example quantum dot array accordingto the disclosed technologies. FIG. 7A shows a cross-section of a threedot array, while FIG. 7B shows a plan view of the same structure.

Starting with FIG. 7A, apertures 774, 776, 778 and respective dotelectrodes 714, 716, 718 define respective positions of first quantumdot 734, second quantum dot 738, and intermediate quantum dot 736. Thedotted outlines for quantum dots 734, 736, 738 are approximate: thetransverse extents of dots 734, 736, 738 can variously depend on layerthicknesses, applied voltages, aperture dimensions, or dot electrodedimensions.

Each dot 734, 736, 738 can be independently configurable and can supporta given type of non-Abelian anyon under respective electromagnetic fieldenvironments. In some examples, the electromagnetic environment of dots734, 736, 738 can be characterized by a vertically oriented magneticfield, a voltage applied to respective control electrodes 714, 716, 718,and voltages applied to other electrode layers as described herein.

Particularly, electrode 716 can switch the intermediate quantum dot 736between an OFF state, in which a given type of non-Abelian anyon has atunneling barrier between dots 714, 718 that is above a first limit. Thefirst limit can be established based on a required lifetime. As anillustration, a voltage VD applied to electrode 716 can match thevoltage VT applied to top electrode 710 and can provide a lifetime of10⁷ seconds for the given type of non-Abelian anyon on dot 731, meaningthat for a first limit of 10⁻⁷ per second, a voltage VD≤VT (assumingnegatively charged carriers in the active layer, a more negative voltagecan increase a barrier for the anyon) can suffice to maintainintermediate dot 736 in the OFF state.

Further, in a second case, with first and intermediate quantum dots 734,736 in their respective electromagnetic field environments (which cansupport the given type of non-Abelian anyon), a tunneling barrierbetween the first and intermediate quantum dots 734, 736 can be below asecond threshold. The second threshold can be established based on arequired operating speed, such as a 1 ns cycle time for a computingoperation.

Numerous variations and extensions can be implemented within the scopeof disclosed technologies. Each dot 734, 736, 738 can have a layer stackwith successive layers being a bottom electrode layer 702, a bottomdielectric layer 704, active layer 706, a top dielectric layer 708, anda top electrode layer 710 as illustrated. Electrical insulation betweentop electrode layer 710 and dot electrodes 714, 716, 718 can be providedby spacer layer 712. One, some, or all of these layers can incorporate avan der Waals material, however this is not a requirement. In otheraspects, features of the quantum dot structures can be similar to thosedescribed for corresponding items of FIGS. 1, 4, 5, or elsewhere herein.Dots 734, 736, 738 can share a common active layer 706, or can share anentire layer stack 702, 704, 706, 708, 710 as illustrated.

Turning to FIG. 7B, the plan view 702 shows dot electrodes 714, 716, 718within the transverse extent 703 of the illustrated device. Hiddenoutlines of apertures 774, 776, 778 are also shown. As shown, the firstand second dot electrodes 714, 718 are circular, while the intermediatedot electrode 716 has an elongated shape. The elongated shape ofelectrode 716 can provide increased separation between first and secondquantum dots 734, 738, to obtain better isolation between quantum dots734, 738 when the intermediate quantum dot 736 is in its OFF state, ascompared to closer spacing between dots 734, 738 with a smallerintermediate quantum dot 736 or no intermediate quantum dot at all. Thatis, it can be desirable to have a small spacing 746 for fast computeoperations subject to the second threshold, and it can be desirable tohave a large spacing 748 for better isolation subject to the firstlimit. While not a requirement, an elongated intermediate quantum dot736 enables both constraints to be conveniently satisfied. In someexamples, the transverse extent of apertures 774, 778 (which can definethe extent of dot electrodes 714, 718 not shielded by top electrode 710)can be in a range 10 to 30 nm. The minor transverse extent of aperture776 can be in a range 10 to 30 nm, while the major transverse extent ofaperture 776 can be in a range 30 to 100 nm. An aspect ratio ofapertures 774, 778 can be in a range 1:1 (i.e. circular) to 1.2:1, whilean aspect ratio of aperture 776 can be in a range of 1:1 to 2:1 or 1.5:1to 10:1.

Also shown in FIG. 7B are electrical leads 784, 786, 788 which serve toapply control voltages to dot electrodes 714, 716, 718 respectively, orto measure capacitance between any pair of these electrodes 714, 716,718, as further described in context of FIGS. 5, 9, 10C, or elsewhereherein. Some illustrative energy profiles that can be employed aredescribed herein in context of FIG. 15.

As an alternative, single elongated intermediate 736 can be replaced bya chain of smaller intermediate quantum dots in some examples, forincreased flexibility of control. An illustrative energy profile isdescribed below in context of FIG. 16.

A three-dot array can support different operational approaches. In someexamples, such as described in context of FIG. 15, an intermediate dotDX can be used to control tunneling amplitudes between two neighboringcomputational dots D1, D2. In other examples, the intermediate dot canbe used as a temporary storage location. With reference to FIG. 15, aquasiparticle on dot D1 can be transported to dot DX. Dots DX, D2 beingproximate, a practical rate of tunneling can be achieved between dotsDX, D2. Finally, any remaining quasiparticle on dot DX can betransported back to dot D1, and dots D1, D2 can revert to isolation fromeach other.

XI. Additional Examples of Quantum Dot Arrays

FIGS. 8A-8D are diagrams 801-804 illustrating example variations andgroupings of the quantum dot array of FIG. 7. Computational quantum dotscan be used to maintain non-Abelian anyons between computing operationsand are labeled with a “C”, while intermediate quantum dots labeled “I”can be used to control interaction between computational quantum dots,or for transient storage of non-Abelian anyons.

Initially, FIG. 8A illustrates a basic three-dot configuration withintermediate dot 812 between computational dots 811, 813. Thisconfiguration can be similar to the dot configuration illustrated inFIGS. 7A, 7B. Dotted line 805 illustrates possible tunneling couplingsbetween neighboring quantum dots, according to the dot control voltagesand other parameters of the dots' electromagnetic environments.

FIG. 8B depicts a configuration having multiple intermediate dots822-824 between computational dots 821, 825. Dashed line 807 indicatesthat the chain of intermediate dots can be arbitrarily extended subjectto space constraints. Dots 821, 822 are near each other, and additionaldots 823 to 824 can be arranged to form a linear sequence of dots fromdot 822 to dot 825.

FIG. 8C depicts a sequence of 3-dot arrays 831 (shown as “C I C” fortheir constituent quantum dots). The second quantum dot (similar to 813)of a given array 831 is the first quantum dot (similar to 811) of animmediately following array 831, with exceptions at the ends of thesequence. Dashed line 807 indicates that the chain of 3-dot arrays 831can be arbitrarily extended subject so space constraints. In examples,the illustrated sequence of quantum dot arrays can be a quasilineararray with at least 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, or 2000 computationaldots. Practical computer designs can have maximum array lengths of 1000,2000, 5000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, or 100,000 computational dots.

FIG. 8D depicts a loop of 3-dot arrays 841 (shown as “C I C” for theirconstituent quantum dots). The second quantum dot (similar to 813) of agiven array 841 is the first quantum dot (similar to 811) of an adjacentarray 841. Dashed lines 807 indicates that the loop of 3-dot arrays 841can be arbitrarily extended to form a loop of any size, subject so spaceconstraints.

XII. Second Example Method

FIG. 9 is a flowchart 900 of an example method of operating a quantumdot array according to the disclosed technologies. The method isdescribed in context of FIG. 7A, where dots 734, 736, 738 haverespectively been labeled D1, DX, D2 for convenience of illustration.D1, D2 can be regarded as computational quantum dots and DX can beregarded as an intermediate quantum dot.

The method begins at start block 910, which can be responsive toexecution of a computer program on a topological computer incorporatingthe instant quantum dot array. The method forks at fork point 912,performs some operations as described further below, and the forkedbranches join at join point 914. After joining, the method continues todecision block 916 where a determination is made whether an instantsequence of computing operations has been completed. If the sequence ofoperations is complete, the method follows the Y branch from block 916to end block 918, where the method terminates. However, if the sequenceof operations is not complete, the method follows the N branch fromblock 916 to fork point 912, to continue with subsequent operations.

Beginning with the left branch of operations at block 922, the quantumdot array can be configured with a first non-Abelian anyon A1 localizedat D1 and dot DX in the OFF state. At block 924, the electromagneticenvironment of dot DX can be adjusted (e.g. by modifying the voltage ofits dot electrode) to decrease the tunneling barrier between D1 and DXbelow a threshold to cause transport of A1 from D1 to D2. The adjustmentof DX can also decrease a tunneling barrier between dots DX and D2. Insome examples, the adjustment of DX can result in a monotonic energyprofile over the transverse extent of dot DX, so that dot DX is free ofa potential well that can localize anyon A1 at dot DX.

Turning to the middle branch of operations at block 932, the quantum dotarray can be configured with non-Abelian anyons A1, A2 respectivelylocalized at dots D1, D2 and dot DX in the OFF state. At block 934, theelectromagnetic environment of dot DX can be adjusted (e.g. by modifyingthe voltage of its dot electrode) to cause fusion of anyons A1, A2. Thefusion can follow one among a set of possible fusion rules. Then, atblock 936, the adjustment of block 934 can be reversed. The adjustmentand reversal of blocks 934 and 936 can be performed in an adiabaticmanner (although this is not a requirement), resulting in restoration ofanyons A1, A2 localized at dots D1, D2 respectively, albeit with changedrelative phase due to their temporary interaction.

Continuing to the right branch of operations at block 942, the quantumdot array can be configured with non-Abelian anyons A1, A2 respectivelylocalized at dots D1, D2 and dot DX in the OFF state. At block 944, theelectromagnetic environment of dot DX can be adjusted (e.g. by adjustingthe voltage of its dot electrode) to cause fusion of anyons A1, A2. Thefusion can follow one among a set of possible fusion rules. As theanyons fuse, an electrical measurement can be performed at block 946 todetermine the energy of the fused anyons. Based on this measurement, thetopological charge of the fused anyons can be determined at block 948.

In some examples, the electrical measurement can be a capacitancemeasurement between the interacting dots, e.g. dots D1, D2. Withreference to FIG. 7B, the electrical leads 784, 788 can be configured tobe coupled across one or more circuit components of a resonant circuit(e.g. a microwave resonant circuit or a combination of an inductance anda capacitance) so that the capacitance between 784, 788 can make a smallperturbation to the circuit resonance condition, which can manifest as asmall change in frequency or phase of a driven oscillation on theresonant circuit. The timing of this phase or frequency perturbation asthe voltage on dot electrode 716 (for dot DX) is changed can reveal theenergy of the selected fusion rule, and thus (a) which fusion rule wasselected and correspondingly (b) the topological charge of the fusionproduct of anyons A1, A2 can be determined. Exemplary apparatus forperforming such electrical measurements is described in context of FIG.10C herein. In some examples, the dispersive phase shift of a microwaveresonator can be expressed as Δθ≈−2Q·ΔC/C, where ΔC is the change in thecapacitance C between two quantum dots due to tunneling, and Q is thequality factor of the resonator.

Numerous variations and extensions can be implemented within the scopeof disclosed technologies. In some examples, the adjustment of DXenvironment at blocks 924, 934, 936, or 944 can be accompanied byadjusting the electromagnetic field environment of dots D1 or D2. Toillustrate, if it is desired to transport anyon A1 from D1 to D2 atblock 924, and the existing environments have equal energy levels at D1,D2, then a boost to control voltage of D2 or a lowering of controlvoltage of D1 can place the energy level at D2 below the energy level atD1, facilitating complete transfer of anyon A1 from D1 to D2 whentunneling is enabled at block 924. Some illustrative energy profilesthat can be employed are described herein in context of FIG. 15.

In some scenarios, quick readout of a single fusion channel isdesirable, and dispersive readout of capacitance, as described above,can be suitable. For example, under some representative conditions, a 1μs measurement can provide over 0.999 measurement fidelity. In otherscenarios, gate reflectometry can be used to measure the charge state ofa quantum system by measuring the capacitance of a gate (dot electrode).Gate reflectometry can be implemented without source or drain leads, andcan be suitable for large quantum computing devices, especiallyfabricated as 2-D arrays of qubits, where it can be desirable to limitthe total number of leads.

Other possible measurement techniques include electrometers based onsingle electron transistors or point contact charge sensors to detectinduced charge resulting from a fusion operation. In further examples,magnetic coupling of microwaves can be used, whereby an inductance shiftbetween a pair of quasiparticles can be measured. Still further, photonassisted tunneling spectroscopy can be utilized to map energy states inquantum dots supporting multiple quasiparticles.

XIII. Example Qubit Structures

FIGS. 10A-10E are views 1001-1005 of an example quantum computing deviceusing qubits according to the disclosed technology. The views show abasic qubit layout, coupled electrical leads, support electronics, andmultiple qubit structures suitable for a topological quantum computeraccording to the disclosed technologies.

FIG. 10A is a top view of an exemplary qubit layout, showing analternating sequence of computational (“C”) and intermediate (“I”)quantum dots 1011-1017, with dotted lines 1005 indicating tunnelingpossibilities between neighboring quantum dots. Additionally, theillustrated qubit has a second alternating sequence of ancillary (“A”)and intermediate (“I”) qubits 1031-1035 parallel to the first sequence1011-1017. Ancillary dots 1031, 1033, 1035 can be similar tocomputational dots 1011, 1013, 1015, 1017 in structure and can likewisesupport computational operations similar to those described in contextof FIG. 9 or elsewhere herein, however the qubit state can depend onlyon the states of anyons in the computational dots 1011, 1013, 1015,1017. The ancillary dots 1031, 1033, 1035 can store ancillary anyonswhich can be utilized to perform braiding transformations on a givenpair or triplet of computational anyons in computational dots 1011,1013, 1015, 1017. Intermediate dots 1032, 1034 can be used to initializeanyons in the ancillary dots 1031, 1033, 1035, to facilitateinteractions or fusion operations between ancillary dots 1031, 1033,1035, or to facilitate long-range interactions between non-neighboringpairs of computational quantum dots such as (1011, 1015) or (1011,1017). Additionally, the qubit layout of FIG. 10A includes intermediatedots 1021-1026, each of which (e.g. 1021) can act as a gate between acomputational quantum dot (e.g. 1011) one side and an ancillary quantumdot (e.g. 1031) on the other side of the intermediate quantum dot. Thequantum dots of FIG. 10A can support non-Abelian topological phases.Accordingly non-Abelian quasiparticles can be localized at respectiveones of the illustrated quantum dots. As described in context of FIG.7B, all intermediate dots of FIG. 10A in an OFF state can isolate theiradjacent computational or ancillary quantum dots to maintain a hightunneling barrier and at least a predetermined anyon lifetime.Conversely, when their dot electrodes are suitably activated, theintermediate dots of FIG. 10A can enable tunneling by decreasing atunneling barrier sufficiently to enable computation operations,involving the adjacent ancillary or computational dots, within apredetermined cycle time. Because dots 1032, 1034 are not required fortransport-based braiding (as described in context of FIG. 14D), in someexamples dots 1032, 1034 can be omitted.

In some examples, the quantum dots of the illustrated qubit can beformed as a van der Waals heterostructure. Because of the relativelyhigh energy gap of an all-van der Waals heterostructure, and because ofthe inherent stability of topological quasiparticles in such a geometry,the illustrated qubit can be robust against both noise and decoherence.Accordingly, a quantum computer based on such qubits can dispense withadditional qubits for error correction, and the number of logical qubitscan be equal to the number of physical qubits.

The layout of FIG. 10A is merely illustrative. In other examples, otherlayouts or quantum dot organizations can be used. For example, fourcomputational quantum dots to implement a qubit can be convenient, butthis is not a requirement. In other examples, three, five, six, seven,or eight computational quantum dots can be used. Layouts similar to thatillustrated can be extended to the right or left, or truncated, so thatthe base row of quantum dots has the desired number C of computationaldots (C=4 in the illustrated in FIG. 10A). Correspondingly, the parallelrow of ancillary quantum dots can be extended or shrunk to maintain anumber A of ancillary quantum dots with A=C−1 (A=3 as illustrated).However, this is not a requirement. To illustrate, in some qubit layoutsa single ancillary dot (e.g. 1031) can be shared among three or morecomputational dots (e.g. 1011, 1013, 1015) so that fewer than A=C−1ancillary dots are required. As qubits with different numbers ofcomputational or ancillary dots are implemented, the count I ofintermediate dots can vary also. In some examples similar to theillustrated qubit, I=4C−5. Additional intermediate dots can also beincluded, e.g. to facilitate interactions between computational dots ofthe illustrated qubit and the computational dots of a neighboring qubit.The illustrated qubit structure is exemplary. Various qubitorganizations and layouts can be used. In some examples, the number ofcomputational quantum dots C in a qubit can be 3, 4, or in a range 5-8.Quantum dots of adjustable size or shape can be used, such as describedin context of FIG. 17.

Turning to FIG. 10B, a metallization layer is shown superposed on thequbit layout of FIG. 10A. (Because the metallization layer can be abovethe dot electrodes, the dot electrodes are hidden and represented withdashed outlines in FIG. 10B.) For example, round computational dot 1011can have a square metal cap 1041 through which dot 1011 is coupled toelectrical lead 1042. Similarly dots 1021, 1031 have respective caps1051, 1061 and are coupled to electrical leads 1052, 1062 respectively.In like manner, dots 1017, 1026, 1035 have metal caps 1047, 1056, 1065and are coupled to electrical leads 1048, 1057, 1066 as shown. Theremaining dots, unlabeled in FIG. 10B, can also be coupled to electricalleads through respective metal caps as shown. As shown, all electrodeleads for dot electrodes of the illustrated qubit can be convenientlyextricated from the array of quantum dots 1011-1017, 1021-1026,1031-1035 on one side or another

FIG. 10C is a diagram illustrating support equipment which can becoupled to an instant qubit via the electrical leads of FIG. 10B.Representative leads 1042-1044, 1066 can be driven by electrode powersupplies 1081, which in turn are controlled by controller 1080.Additionally, FIG. 10C illustrates exemplary measurement electronics. Inthe illustration, controller 1080 can control oscillator 1084 to drive aresonant tank circuit 1086. The phase or frequency of the tank circuitoscillations can be measured by phase or frequency measurementelectronics 1088. Controller 1080 can control the measurementelectronics 1088 and can monitor phase or frequency measurements made bythe measurement electronics 1088. Additionally, controller 1080 cancontrol switch bank 1085 to select a pair of electrical leads (and theirassociated dot electrodes) for measurement. As illustrated, leads 1042,1044 are selected for measurement and are coupled to the tank circuit1086. In this configuration, changes to the capacitance betweencomputational dot electrodes 1011, 1013 can be measured as phase orfrequency changes in the tank circuit 1086. Functions of controller 1080can be included in e.g. controllers 380, 384 of FIG. 3 or QPsubcontroller 2104 of FIG. 21.

FIG. 10D shows organization of multiple qubits 1010 (in dashed outline)to form a multi-qubit computing device. The lead layout of FIG. 10B isscalable, and the chain of qubits 1010 can be extended indefinitely,subject to space limitations, to construct quantum computers withupwards of 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 or even more.For example, a representative qubit could have a length 1019 of about600-700 nm. 10,000 such qubits stacked end-to-end can have a totallength of 6-7 mm, which is a practical size for a computing device. Acorresponding width 1017 of the qubit can be about 175-225 nm. Exampletopological computers can have up to 1000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 or evenmore qubits in a quasilinear chain. Qubit 1010 has a height of one qubitor 3 quantum dots, and a length of 1 qubit or 7 quantum dots. Thus, aquasilinear chain of 50 qubits similar to FIG. 10D of length 50 to10,000 qubits can have aspect ratio (in qubits) of 50:1 to 10,000:1.Other examples can have aspect ratio as low as 2:1, 4:1, 10:1, 20:1, or100:1; or can have aspect ratios as high as 1,000:1, 2,000:1, 5,000:1,20,000:1, 50,000:1, 100,000:1, 200,000:1, 500,000:1 or 1,000,000:1. Withmanufacturing advances (e.g. roll-to-roll continuous processing) upperlimits to aspect ratios can extend as high as 10⁷:1, 10⁸:1, 10⁹:1.

FIG. 10E shows an alternate qubit arrangement to FIG. 10D, featuring afolded chain of qubits 1010. Similar to FIGS. 10B, 10D, the electricalleads 1038 can be brought out conveniently on one side or another of thequbit chain. For clarity of illustration, the electrical leads from eachqubit 1010 are grouped as indicated by representative markings “/8” and“/10”. Neighboring qubits 1010 of FIG. 10E can be joined by intermediatequantum dots similar to 1018 of FIG. 10D. These dots and theirassociated electrical leads have been omitted from FIG. 10 for clarityof illustration. Through folding, the number of qubits that can befitted in a length 1029 can be doubled as shown, from about 3 qubits toabout 6 qubits. Through more complex folding, following e.g. a Kochsnowflake pattern, the qubit density can be further increased, subjectto a limit on how closely electrically leads can be packed in aparticular manufacturing technology.

Although some examples of the disclosed technologies can employquasilinear arrays, this is not a requirement. FIG. 11 shows atwo-dimensional sea 1100 of quantum dots which can be organized intoarbitrary configurations of qubits. As illustrated, primary quantum dots1111 can be coupled among each other by intermediate quantum dots 1121in a hexagonal lattice. The primary quantum dots can be computational orancillary quantum dots in various combinations. The sea of quantum dots1100 can be extended in some or all directions as indicated by dashedlines 1107. Groups of the quantum dots can be organized as qubits.Dotted outlines 1110 indicate some of numerous possibilities for qubitorganization, following the qubit pattern of FIG. 10A.

Numerous variations of FIG. 11 can be implemented. A sea of quantum dotscan omit intermediate dots 1111, or can use expandable quantum dots inthe manner of FIG. 17 below. In some examples, a rectangular or squarepattern of quantum dots can be deployed similar to inset 1730 of FIG. 17below. In further examples, a sea of quantum dots can feature internalzones free of quantum dots to facilitate out-of-plane extraction ofelectrical leads. In other examples, off-plane connections can be madeseparately at each quantum dot or in a group at each qubit. Off-planeconnections can be implemented using 3-D chip stacking.

XIV. Third Example Methods

FIG. 12A-12D are flowcharts 1201-1204 of example methods of operating aqubit according to the disclosed technologies. These methods can beapplied to a qubit such as that of FIG. 10A or a qubit based on a vander Waals heterostructure such as FIG. 1. FIG. 12A describes a basicmethod, and FIGS. 12B-12D describe extensions or variations of thismethod.

1. Initialization and Transport

Referring to FIG. 12A, at block 1210 signals can be applied to controlelectrodes of quantum dots D1, D2 of a qubit, to initializequasiparticles Q1, Q2 localized at dots D1, D2 respectively.Quasiparticles Q1, Q2 can be non-Abelian topological quasiparticles. Thequbit can incorporate an all-van der Waals heterostructure. In someinstances, quasiparticles Q1, Q2 can be created as antiparticles from avacuum state by setting voltages on the control electrodes of dots D1,D2 to induce tunneling or render splitting of the vacuum intoquasiparticle Q1 (on dot D1) and its antiparticle quasiparticle Q2 (ondot D2) energetically favorable, which can result in the creation ofquasiparticles Q1, Q2. In other examples, the quasiparticles Q1, Q2 canbe initialized from one or more quasiparticles pre-existing on dots D1,D2, or other quantum dots of the qubit.

Then, at block 1220, the voltage on a control electrode of quantum dotD3 can be changed to decrease a tunneling barrier from dot D1 to dot D4,which can cause quasiparticle Q1 to be transported from dot D1 to dotD4.

The method of FIG. 12A can support various embodiments. In one example,with reference to FIG. 10A, dots D1, D2 can be dots 1011, 1013respectively, while dots D3, D4 can be dots 1021, 1031 respectively. Thechanged voltage can lead to a monotonic energy profile along the extentof dot 1021, so that quasiparticle does not get trapped at theintermediate dot 1021. In another example, dots D3, D4 can both refer tointermediate dot 1021, and the changed voltage at block 1220 can resultin a potential well at dot D3 which can localize quasiparticle Q1 at dotD3. In a further example, the method of FIG. 12A can also be applied toa qubit lacking intermediate dots. Such a qubit can comprise just theseven computational and ancillary quantum dots of FIG. 10A. In thefurther example, D1, D2 can be dots 1011, 1013; D4 can be dot 1031; andprocess block 1220 can change voltages at both dots 1011, 1031 (so thatdot D3 can be either of dots 1011, 1031). Examples of controlled energyprofiles are described further in context of FIG. 15 herein.

2. Fusion and Tunable Interaction

Turning to FIG. 12B, at block 1230, a voltage can be changed at acontrol electrode of a quantum dot D5 to increase a probability ofquasiparticle Q2 (on D2) interacting with a quasiparticle Q3 on dot D6.In varying examples, and with reference to FIG. 10A, dots D2, D6 can bedots 1013, 1031, dot D5 can be dot 1022 or dot 1013. Similar operationscan be applied to a modified qubit having e.g. dots 1011, 1013, 1015,1017, 1031, 1033, 1035 but no intermediate dots.

Depending on the desired computer operation, in some examples the methodcan perform block 1240 where a fusion output of quasiparticles Q2, Q3 ismeasured. Block 1240 can be performed concurrently with the voltagechange of block 1230, and can be performed as described in context ofFIG. 10C, or elsewhere in this disclosure.

In other examples, the method can perform block 1250 after block 1230.At block 1250, the voltage change of block 1230 can be reversed. Thevoltage change of block 1230 and the reversal of block 1240 can beperformed adiabatically, to result in restoration of quasiparticles Q2,Q3 to their original localized sites at dots D2, D6 respectively, albeitwith a change in relative phase as compared to their condition beforeblock 1230 was performed. Thus, the combination of blocks 1230, 1250results in a tunable interaction between quasiparticles Q2, Q3 on dotsD2, D6 without changing their localized positions.

In additional examples, quasiparticle fusion (qf) can be performed usingan operational sequence similar to Table 1 below.

TABLE 1 Quasiparticle Fusion No. Operation qf1 Start from an initialconfiguration that localizes one quasiparticle on dot D1 and onequasiparticle on dot D2. qf2 Tune the dots in an adiabatic manner,changing the localizing potentials of dots D1 and D2 from the initialconfiguration toward an intermediate configuration, using anintermediate dot D3 if needed, to turn on interactions between the dotsD1 and D2. qf3 End the adiabatic tuning in the intermediateconfiguration that localizes one quasiparticle on dot D1 and noquasiparticle on dot D2. qf4 Measure the topological charge of thequasiparticle on dot D1. qf5 Tune the localization potential on dot D1to a final configuration which has the measured topological charge valueas the ground state.

As a variation, operation qf4 can be replaced by a joint measurement ofthe initial quasiparticles on dots D1, D2, performed in betweenoperations qf1, qf2.

3. Braiding

FIG. 12C describes a method for braiding three quasiparticles Q4, Q5,and Q6 present in the qubit. In an example and with reference to FIG.10A, quasiparticles Q4, Q5, Q6 can be non-Abelian anyons present oncomputational quantum dots 1013, 1015, 1017. The method can be performedat block 1260 and can be performed in several different ways, three ofwhich are illustrated at blocks 1263, 1266, 1269 respectively.

At block 1263, a succession of transport operations is performed similarto the operation of block 1220. To illustrate, quasiparticle Q4 can betransported from dot 1013 to dot 1033, quasiparticle Q5 can betransported from dot 1015 to dot 1013, and then quasiparticle Q4 can betransported from dot 1033 to dot 1015. This exchanges the positions ofquasiparticles Q4, Q5 by a right-hand half-twist. A converse sequence ofoperations with Q5 moved to dot 1033, Q4 sliding over to dot 1015, andthen Q5 to dot 1013 would have exchanged the same quasiparticles by aleft-hand half-twist. Braiding transformations can be extended to athird quasiparticle Q6. For example, the Q4↔Q5 exchange can be followedby a Q4↔Q6 exchange (either right-hand or left-hand half-twist) mediatedby ancillary dot 1035. These and similar half-twist transport operationscan be combined in various ways to implement additional braidingtransformations.

Block 1266 can implement braiding using a succession of interactionoperations similar to the combination of blocks 1230, 1250, whichinteract two quasiparticles and then reverse any electrode voltagechanges to restore the quasiparticles to their initial localizedpositions. To illustrate, quasiparticle Q4 on dot 1013 can be interactedwith an ancillary quasiparticle QA on dot 1033, followed by aninteraction of quasiparticle Q5 with an ancillary quasiparticle on dot1035, and then an interaction between the ancillary quasiparticles ondots 1033, 1035. This trio of operations (Q4↔QA followed by Q5↔QB andthen QA↔QB) can couple the quasiparticles Q4, Q5 with a particular sensewhich can be labeled a “right-hand” interaction. Performing theinteractions in opposite order (viz. Q5↔QB followed by Q4↔QA and thenQA↔QB) can couple the quasiparticles Q4, Q5 with an opposite sense whichcan be labeled a “left-hand” interaction. Braiding can be extended to athird quasiparticle with a similar interaction (right-hand or left-hand)between Q5 (on dot 1015) and Q6 (on dot 1017) to achieve a braidingtransformation of quasiparticles Q4, Q5, Q6. As for block 1263,additional interactions can be added for more complex braidingtransformations.

Lastly, block 1269 can implement braiding using a succession of fusionmeasurements to the combination of blocks 1230, 1240, which fuse andmeasure to neighboring quasiparticles. To illustrate, quasiparticle Q4on dot 1013 can be fused with an ancillary quasiparticle QA on dot 1033and measured, followed by a fusion and measurement between quasiparticleQ5 and an ancillary quasiparticle on dot 1035, and then a fusionoperation between the fused ancillary quasiparticles on dots 1033, 1035.This trio of operations (Q4⊗QA followed by Q5⊗QB and then QA⊗QB) cancouple the quasiparticles Q4, Q5 with a particular sense which can belabeled a “right-hand” coupling. Performing the interactions in oppositeorder (viz. Q5⊗DQB followed by Q4⊗QA and then QA⊗QB) can couple thequasiparticles Q4, Q5 with an opposite sense which can be labeled a“left-hand” coupling. Braiding can be extended to a third quasiparticlewith a similar coupling (right-hand or left-hand) between Q5 (on dot1015) and Q6 (on dot 1017) to effect a braiding transformation ofquasiparticles Q4, Q5, Q6. As for blocks 1263, 1266, additional fusionmeasurements can be added to implement more complex braidingtransformations.

4. Splitting

Continuing to FIG. 12D, a method is described for splitting a singlequasiparticle into a pair of quasiparticles. Initially, at block 1270,signals can be applied to control electrode of quantum dot D1 toinitialize a quasiparticle Q1 at dot D1. Meanwhile a proximate quantumdot D2 can be configured with no localized quasiparticle at dot D2. Asinitially configured, dot D2 can optionally have a pinning potential, orcan have a common potential with an adjacent top electrode. In varyingexamples, quasiparticle Q1 can be generated from the vacuum state, orfrom one or more other pre-existing quasiparticles, as described herein.In varying examples, dots D1, D2 can be adjacent or can be separated byone or more intermediate quantum dots D3 through which tunneling betweenD1, D2 can be controlled.

Then, at block 1273, voltage on one or more of quantum dots D1, D2, orany intermediate quantum dots D3 can be controlled as described hereinto decrease a tunneling barrier between D1, D2. Particularly the jointsystem can thereby couple to configurations having distinctquasiparticles on dots D1, D2, subject to the fusion rules of theinstant qubit. Finally, at block 1276, voltage on one or more of quantumdots D1, D2, or any intermediate quantum dots D3 can be controlled asdescribed herein to increase or restore a tunneling barrier between D1,D2. Particularly, the method can end with a final configuration for thequbit having decoupled distinct quasiparticles Q3, Q2 at dots D1, D2respectively. With reference to FIG. 15, an exemplary splittingoperation can start with a configuration similar to 1520, proceedthrough 1530 to 1534 (or, 1536) to couple quantum dots D1, D2, andreturn from 1534 (or, 1536) to 1530 with quasiparticles localized in therespective pinning potentials at D1, D2.

In additional examples, quasiparticle splitting (qs) can be performedusing an operational sequence similar to Table 2 below. The splittingsequence qs1→qs3 is conceptually reverse to a portion qf1→qf3 of thefusion sequence described above.

TABLE 2 Quasiparticle Splitting No. Operation qs1 Start from an initialconfiguration that localizes one quasiparticle on dot D1 and noquasiparticle on dot D2. qs2 Tune the dots in an adiabatic manner,changing the localizing potentials of dots 1 and 2, while using anintermediate dot (if needed) to turn on interactions between the dotsfrom the initial configuration toward a final configuration. qs3 End inthe final configuration with one quasiparticle localized on dot D1 andanother quasiparticle localized on dot D2.

The final configuration and the initial configuration obey the fusionrules of the device. That is, if the topological charge of the initialquasiparticle is c, then the topological charges a, b of the finalquasiparticles satisfy N^(c) _(ab)≠0. The quasiparticle of the initialconfiguration can be regarded as a fusion channel for the quasiparticlesof the final configuration. In further examples, splitting can beperformed on an initial configuration which is a superposition of statesz satisfying N^(z) _(ab)≠0. In such examples, a measurement similar tooperation qf4 can be included as part of the splitting operationsequence, to determine a single post-measurement state |a, b; c

, using a similar notation as for fusion operations, with a, b, c beingrespective topological charges of final and initial quasiparticles.Adiabaticity can be maintained for the c channel, and can be disregardedfor other components z of the superposed initial configuration. Whilethe presence of local noise can cause rapid decoherence of the initialsuperposition, the fusion channel measurement renders consideration asto the coherence or incoherence of the superposed states moot.

Combinations of the methods described in context of FIGS. 12A-12D can beimplemented as a set of computationally universal operations, all ofwhich are topologically protected, on a single qubit. Similar operationsbetween quantum dots of neighboring qubits can be implemented to providea set of computationally universal operations on a pair of qubits, alltopologically protected. Although some examples of the disclosedtechnologies utilize fully topologically protected computationoperations, this is not a requirement. In other examples a set ofcomputation operations can include a mix of topologically protectedoperations and other operations. Such a configuration can be useful withv=½ non-Abelian fractional quantum Hall states, for example, to gain theadvantage of a large bandgap as described herein. The computationoperations can be performed by control electronics similar to thosedescribed in context of blocks 380 or 1080, or elsewhere herein.

XV. Example Software Architecture

FIG. 13 is a diagram 1300 illustrating an example software architecturefor the disclosed technologies. Software for performing computingoperations on disclosed devices (e.g. FIG. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, or 10) canbe organized as a suite of modules and stored on computer-readable media1310.

Software module 1320 can store instructions which, when executed by acontroller similar to 1080 or 380, cause two or more non-Abeliantopological quasiparticles to be initialized on two or more quantum dotsof a qubit in a topological computing system. In some examples, theinstructions of module 1320 can form the two quasiparticles by splittinga vacuum state in a two-dimensional electron gas, as described incontext of block 1210 or elsewhere in this disclosure.

Software module 1330 can store instructions which, when executed by acontroller similar to 1080 or 380, cause hybridization of quantum statesof two quantum dots, and measurement of the hybridization energy. Insome examples, the instructions of module 1330 can implement operationssimilar to those described in context of 1230 and 1240, or elsewhere inthis disclosure.

Software module 1340 can store instructions which, when executed by acontroller similar to 1080 or 380, cause a tunable interaction betweentwo quasiparticles on respective quantum dots of a qubit. In someexamples, the instructions of module 1330 can implement operationssimilar to those described in context of blocks 1230 and 1250, orelsewhere in this disclosure.

Software module 1350 can store instructions which, when executed by acontroller similar to 1080 or 380, cause transport of a quasiparticlefrom one quantum dot to another quantum dot within a topological qubit.In some examples, the instructions of module 1350 can implementoperations similar to those described in context of blocks 1220, orelsewhere in this disclosure.

Software module 1360 can store instructions which, when executed by acontroller similar to 1080 or 380, cause braiding of quasiparticles ontwo or more quantum dots of one or more qubits. In some examples, theinstructions of module 1360 can implement operations similar to thosedescribed in context of block 1260 or elsewhere in this disclosure.

Additional details of software modules 1330, 1340, 1350, 1360 areprovided in context of FIG. 14.

XVI. Fourth Example Methods

FIG. 14A-14F are a group of flowcharts 1301-1306 illustrating exemplarymethods corresponding to the software modules of FIG. 13. FIGS. 14A-14Care associated with modules 1350, 1340, 1330 respectively, while FIGS.14D-14F are associated with braiding module 1360.

FIG. 14A shows exemplary operations 1452, 1454, 1456 that can beimplemented through execution of module 1350 as shown. At process block1452, gate voltages of one or more quantum dot control gates of a qubitcan be altered. Thereby, at block 1454, one or more tunnel couplings canbe created between two or more of the quantum dots (e.g. including dotsD5, D6) of the qubit, and at block 1456, a quasiparticle can betransported from quantum dot D5 to quantum dot D6.

FIG. 14B shows exemplary operations 1441, 1443, 1445, 1447, 1449 thatcan be implemented through execution of module 1340 as shown. At processblock 1441, gate voltages of one or more quantum dot control gates of aqubit can be altered. Thereby, at block 1443, tunnel couplings can becreated between two or more of the quantum dots of the qubit (e.g.including dots D3, D4), and at block 1445 quasiparticles Q3 (localizedon dot D3) and Q4 (localized on dot D4) can interact. At block 1447, thegate voltage alteration of block 1441 can be reversed, and at block1449, the interacting quasiparticles Q3, Q4 can revert to their originallocalizations at dots D3, D4 respectively.

FIG. 14C shows exemplary operations 1431, 1433, 1435, 1437, 1439 thatcan be implemented through execution of module 1330 as shown. At processblock 1431, gate voltages of one or more quantum dot control gates of aqubit can be altered. Thereby, at block 1433, one or more tunnelcouplings can be created between two or more quantum dots (e.g.including dots D1, D2) of the qubit. Quasiparticles Q1, Q2 on the dotsD1, D2 can have energy levels altered due to the tunnel coupling,leading to hybridization of their quantum states at block 1435. At block1437, the hybridized energy can be measured, and based on the measuredenergy, the topological charge of the hybridized quasiparticles Q1⊗Q2can be determined at block 1439.

FIGS. 14D-14F show exemplary operations that can be performed toimplement braiding through execution of module 1360, based on transportoperations, interaction operations, and fusion operations respectively.FIGS. 14D-14F illustrate operations to support braiding of non-Abelianquasiparticles on computational dots D1, D2, D3, with two ancillary dotsDA, DB. To illustrate with reference to FIG. 10A, computational dots D1,D2, D3 can be computational dots 1011, 1013, 1015 respectively, andancillary dots DA, DB can be ancillary dots 1031, 1033 respectively.However, any other computational quantum dots can be braided similarly.

FIG. 14D shows braiding performed at block 1470 using a suite oftransport operations in blocks 1471-1474, in a similar manner asdescribed in context of block 1263. Block 1471 can perform a right-handhalf-twist between dots D1, D2 using ancillary dot DA with the orderedoperations shown. A quasiparticle on dot D1 can be transported to dotDA, then a quasiparticle on dot D2 can be transported to dot D1, andfinally the quasiparticle on dot DA can be transported to dot D2 tocomplete the half-twist. Block 1472 illustrates a sequence of operationsfor a left-hand half-twist between dots D1, D2. In similar fashion,blocks 1473-1474 illustrate sequences of operations for right-hand andleft-hand half-twists between computational dots D2, D3 using anancillary dot DB. Within process block 1470, the operations of blocks1471-1474 can be selectively performed in an order and as many times asprogrammed, to effect a desired simple or complex braidingtransformation.

As an alternative, FIG. 14E shows braiding performed at block 1480 usinga suite of interaction operations in blocks 1481-1484, in a similarmanner as described in context of block 1266. Block 1481 can perform aright-hand interaction between dots D1, D2 using ancillary dots DA, DBwith the ordered operations shown. A quasiparticle on dot D1 can beinteracted with a quasiparticle on dot DA, then a quasiparticle on dotD2 can be interacted with a quasiparticle on dot DB, followed byinteraction between the quasiparticles on dots DA, DB to complete theright-hand interaction. Block 1482 illustrates a sequence of operationsfor a left-hand interaction between dots D1, D2. In similar fashion,blocks 1483-1484 illustrate sequences of operations for right-hand andleft-hand half-twists between computational dots D2, D3 using anancillary dot DB. Within process block 1480, the operations of blocks1481-1484 can be selectively performed in an order and as many times asprogrammed, to effect a desired simple or complex braidingtransformation.

As another alternative, FIG. 14F shows braiding performed at block 1490using a suite of fusion measurement operations in blocks 1491-1494, in asimilar manner as described in context of block 1269. Block 1491 canperform a right-hand fusion measurement between dots D1, D2 usingancillary dots DA, DB with the ordered operations shown. A quasiparticleon dot D1 can be fused with a quasiparticle on dot DA, then aquasiparticle on dot D2 can be fused with the resulting quasiparticle ondot DB, followed by fusion of the quasiparticles on dots DA, DB tocomplete the right-hand interaction. Block 1492 illustrates a sequenceof operations for a left-hand fusion between dots D1, D2. In similarfashion, blocks 1483-1484 illustrate sequences of operations forright-hand and left-hand fusion measurements between computational dotsD2, D3 using an ancillary dot DB. Within process block 1490, theoperations of blocks 1491-1494 can be selectively performed in an orderand as many times as programmed, to effect a desired simple or complexbraiding transformation.

In examples, the operations of FIGS. 14A-14F can be performed on quantumdots fabricated as van der Waals heterostructures as described incontext of FIGS. 1, 5, or elsewhere in this disclosure. Thequasiparticles involved in these operations can be non-Abelian anyonsand can be embodied in one or more topological phases in an active layerof the van der Waals heterostructure.

XVII. Additional Example Features 1. Transverse Size of a Quasiparticle

The transverse extent R of a quasiparticle localized at a quantum dotdepends on (1) the separation between the top electrode layer and theactive layer, which can be the same as the thickness of the topdielectric layer, and commonly in the range of tens of nm; and (2) theextent of the dot electrode not shielded by the top electrode, which canalso be in the range of tens of nm. Where (1) and (2) are comparable,the transverse extent can be comparable to and greater than the largerof (1) and (2). Where (1) and (2) are widely disparate, the larger among(1) and (2) can dominate.

2. Error Rates

The error rate of a topological quasiparticle confined at a quantum dotdepends on spatial and energy factors. Commonly, the larger factor candominate the overall error rate. In one mechanism, thermal fluctuationscan result in errors, with an error rate scaling as exp(−Δ/kT), where kis Boltzmann's constant (1.38×10⁻²³ JK⁻¹), T is the operatingtemperature, and A is the bandgap of the topological phase. For a v=½non-Abelian fractional quantum Hall state, a van der Waalsheterostructure can have Δ/k in a range 1.0-2.0 K, 1.5-2.5 K, or 2.5-3K, compared to about 0.5-0.6 K for comparative GaAs. At common operatingtemperatures of 20 mK, this translates to a thermal error rateimprovement from about 10⁻¹³ to about 10⁻⁶⁵.

For a v=⅗ non-Abelian fractional quantum Hall state offeringtopologically protected and computationally universal operations asdisclosed herein, a van der Waals heterostructure can have Δ/k of about2000 mK, compared to about 80 mK for comparative GaAs, which translatesto an improvement from about 0.018 to 4×10⁻⁵. Thus, v=⅗ can beacceptable for a van der Waals heterostructure based quantum computer,while being completely impractical for GaAs.

Comparing v=⅗ with v=½, in some examples the former can be preferred forreasons of computational universality, as outweighing the higher thermalerror rate. In other examples, v=½ (with supporting π/8 gates forcomputational universality) can be preferred as enabling highertemperature operation and reduced refrigeration requirements forcooling.

Turning to spatial factors, the spatial dependence of error rate scalesas exp(−R/ξ), where R is the minor transverse extent of thequasiparticle and ξ is the correlation length. Van der Waalsheterostructures such as graphene have very high electron mobility(orders of magnitude greater than competing materials) resulting incorrelation lengths on the order of 10-25 nm, considerably better(smaller) than GaAs or other competing materials. With R on the order of30-100 nm, acceptable spatial error rates can be achieved.

3. Non-Topologically Protected Operations

In some examples, a v=½ non-Abelian fractional quantum Hall state can beused with supporting non-topologically protected π/8 gates (or, T gates)to obtain computational universality, similar to that used in otherquantum computing architectures. Because of lacking topologicalprotection, such π/8 gates have susceptibility for errors, which can becompensated with support circuitry. In this way, benefits of the largev=½ bandgap for a van der Waals heterostructure can be obtained.

4. Energy Profiles

FIG. 15 is a diagram 1500 illustrating exemplary energy profiles for twoquantum dots separated by an intermediate quantum dot, a configurationsimilar to that described in context of FIGS. 7A-7B. Computational (orancillary) quantum dots D1 1512, D2 1516, and intermediate quantum dotDX 1514 are positioned above respective openings in top electrode layer1510 as shown. Dashed lines indicate edges of the dot electrodes D11512, D2 1516, DX 1514 for convenience of illustration. Arrow 1505indicates a direction of increasing energy applicable to all energyprofile graphs 1520-1550, which correspond to different voltage patternson dot electrodes D1 1512, D2 1516, DX 1514.

Graph 1520 illustrates a configuration suitable for a quasiparticlelocalized at D1, while graph 1530 illustrates a configuration suitablefor two quasiparticles localized at D1, D2 respectively. Although graph1530 can also support a single quasiparticle at D1, the configuration ofgraph 1520 can be preferred when D2 is empty, to avoid a quasiparticlebecoming localized at D2 due to noise or tunneling. Dot DX is in an OFFstate in both graphs 1520, 1530. As illustrated, DX is set to the samevoltage VT as the top electrode, however this is not a requirement. Inother examples, the voltage VDX on DX can be set lower than VT toincrease the barrier between D1, D2.

Graphs 1532, 1534, 1536 depict energy profiles as the voltage VDX on dotDX is gradually relaxed to lower the tunneling barrier. In graphs 1532,1534 a barrier between D1, D2 remains, however a potential well hasdeveloped at dot DX, which can localize a quasiparticle at dot DX. Asvoltage VDX is increased further, graph 1536 illustrates disappearanceof any tunneling barrier between D1, D2, however the most favorablestate for a quasiparticle is in the deep potential well at DX.

To avoid unwanted trapping of quasiparticles at intermediate dot DX, thevoltages V1, V2 on dots D1, D2 can be unbalanced, to raise the energy atD1 and lower the energy at D2 as shown in graph 1540. Then, graphs1542-1550 depict evolution of the energy profile as voltage VDX onintermediate dot DX is increased, to progressively lower the energyprofile in the vicinity of dot DX. In graph 1542, a barrier remainsbetween dots D1, DX, whereas in graph 1544, the barrier has disappeared,allowing free passage of a quasiparticle from D1 to D2. In both graphs1542, 1544, the most favorable (lowest energy) position for aquasiparticle is localized at dot D2.

As voltage VDX on dot DX is increased further, graphs 1546, 1548, 1550show progressive development of a potential well at dot DX, similar tothat of graph 1538.

5. Multiple Intermediate Quantum Dots

FIG. 16 is a diagram 1600 illustrating exemplary energy profiles for twoquantum dots separated by multiple intermediate quantum dots in anotherexample of the disclosed technologies. Dots D1 1612, D2 1616 arearranged relative to top electrode 1610 similarly to the configurationof FIG. 15. However, the single intermediate quantum dot DX 1514 hasbeen replaced with a string of three intermediate dots DW 1613, DX 1614,DY 1615 as shown.

Energy profile graph 1620 demonstrates the more precise control ofenergy profile that can be achieved with multiple intermediate quantumdots DW, DX, DY. As illustrated, a monotonic and generally smooth energyprofile can be obtained, with preferred lowest energy position locatedat D2. Arrow 1605 indicates a direction of increasing energy for graph1620.

6. Shaped Quantum Dots with Multiple Control Electrodes

FIG. 17 is a diagram 1700 illustrating another example control electrodeconfiguration according to the disclosed technologies. In this example,multiple control electrodes allow the size or shape of a quantum dot tobe dynamically varied for more flexible control of a localizedquasiparticle or of tunneling barriers for confined quasiparticles.Insets 1720, 1730 illustrate associated use cases.

Shown in top view, central control electrode 1715 and its electricallead 1785 are positioned above an aperture 1775 in a top electrodelayer. The configuration can be similar to that of control electrodes714, 716 of FIGS. 7A-7B, however unlike FIGS. 7A-7B, the transverseextent of control electrode 1715 is smaller than the transverse extentof aperture 1775. Additional portions of the aperture 1775 can becovered by multiple additional control electrodes 1711-1714, each havinga respective independent electrical lead 1781-1784. Although FIG. 17shows four control electrodes 1711-1714 arranged in an annulus, this isnot a requirement, and other numbers or arrangements of supplementarycontrol electrodes can be used.

In some instances, control electrodes 1711-1714 can be set to match thevoltage on an adjacent top electrode. In such instances, a suitablevoltage on central control electrode 1715 can be used to control aquantum dot whose transverse extent is determined, at least in part, bythe diameter of control electrode 1715. In other instances, voltages oncontrol electrodes 1711-1714 can be set to match the voltage on controlelectrode 1715, distinct from the voltage on any adjacent top electrode.In such instances, a common voltage on control electrodes 1711-1715 canbe adjusted to control a quantum dot whose transverse extent is based atleast partly on the diameter of the aperture 1775. Other voltagepatterns can also be used. For example, one, two, or three of controlelectrodes 1711-1714 can be set to match the voltage on centralelectrode 1715, while the remaining control electrode(s) can be set tomatch the voltage on an adjacent top electrode. As another example, oneor more of the control electrodes 1711-1714 can be set to a voltagebetween the voltage of the central electrode 1715 and the voltage of theadjacent top electrode.

Inset 1720 depicts an illustrative use case of a configuration similarto that of electrodes 1711-1715 described above. The effective diameterof control electrode 1715 can be expanded to diameter 1725 by switchingcontrol electrodes (not shown in inset 1720) from the top electrodevoltage to the voltage of control electrode 1715, as indicated by arrow1765. An adjacent quantum dot of similar construction can have a centralcontrol electrode 1716 which can similarly be expanded to aperturediameter 1766 as indicated by arrow 1766. Thus, in a first state, theeffective diameters of the control electrodes 1715, 1716 are small, thetransverse confinement areas are small, and a separation between thequantum dots is relative large, resulting in a large tunneling barrierbetween them. In a second state, the effective diameters of the controlelectrodes are expanded to the aperture diameters 1725, 1726, thetransverse confinement areas of the associated quantum dots areincreased, and the tunneling barrier can be dramatically decreased, byone or more orders of magnitude. In examples, the quantum dotsassociated with electrodes 1715, 1716 can be computational quantum dots,ancillary quantum dots, or intermediate quantum dots, in anycombination.

Inset 1730 depicts another use case. A quantum dot having the centralcontrol electrode 1715 can be situated among an array of fourneighboring control electrodes 1731-1734 representing respective quantumdots. As above, central electrode 1715 can be surrounded by a ring ofcontrol electrodes 1711-1714 (not shown in inset 1730) whereby theeffective transverse extent of control electrode 1715 can be expanded upto the perimeter of aperture 1725, in selectable directions. Forexample, setting the control voltage of control electrode 1711 to matchcontrol electrode 1715 can deform the quantum dot underneath controlelectrode 1715 towards the neighboring quantum dot of electrode 1731.The other control electrodes 1712-1714 can be held at the top electrodevoltage during such deformation. Similarly, excitation of each of theother control electrodes 1712-1714 can deform the quantum dot beneathelectrode 1715 towards dot electrodes 1732-1734 respectively. Stillfurther, excitation of two among control electrodes 1711-1714 can deformthe shape of the dot beneath electrode 1715 towards two of theneighboring quantum dots 1731-1734 simultaneously, allowing anyselectable pair among dots 1731-1734 to be coupled (i.e. a decrease in atunneling barrier e.g. for purpose of transport, tunable interaction, orfusion). In examples, the four dots 1731-1734 can be computationalquantum dots of a qubit, and dot electrode 1715 can control a commonintermediate quantum dot having variable size or shape.

7. Hamiltonian Notation

Quantum dots, qubits, or other computing structures described herein canbe described or analyzed using Schrodinger's equation Eψ=Hψ, where ψ isa wavefunction of the instant structure, H is a Hamiltonian operator,and E is an energy eigenvalue of the structure. Several operations ofinterest herein can be described in terms of two interacting quantumdots (which can be denoted by superscripts 1, 2) having initial andfinal configurations (denoted by subscripts i, f). In such case, theHamiltonian can be expressed as:

$\begin{matrix}{H = {\begin{bmatrix}{E_{i}^{(1)} + E_{i}^{(2)}} & \Gamma^{*} \\\Gamma & {E_{f}^{(1)} + E_{f}^{(2)}}\end{bmatrix}.}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

In Equation (2), Γ can be a tunneling amplitude from initial to finalconfiguration, Γ* its complex conjugate, and the several E_(c) ^((k))terms can be numerically equal to energy values of configuration c onquantum dot k. Within scope of this description are transport (E_(i)⁽²⁾==0, for dot D2 initially empty, and dot D1 empty after the transportoperation), splitting (E_(i) ⁽²⁾=0, for dot D2 initially empty), fusion(E_(f) ⁽²⁾=0, for dot D2 empty afterward), and initialization (E_(i)⁽²⁾=E_(i) ⁽¹⁾=0, for initialization from a vacuum state), as specialcases. The Hamiltonian description can be extended with additional E_(c)^((k)) terms for additional quantum dots, or with additional rows andcolumns for coupling between more than two configurations.

In the special case where E_(i) ⁽¹⁾+E_(i) ⁽²⁾=E_(f) ⁽¹⁾+E_(f) ⁽²⁾,degeneracy is avoided due to the tunneling amplitude, and a levelsplitting of 2·Γ is obtained. This phenomenon is sometimes termed an“avoided crossing.” Because adiabaticity can be defined with respect tothe instantaneous energy gap, and in order to maintain topologicalprotection or other adiabatic invariants, the rate of variation ofcontrol voltages or other system parameters can be configured to be slowin relation to the tunneling amplitude and the energy gap at the avoidedcrossing.

8. Localization

When the depth Φ_(D) of the local potential well at a dot exceeds acritical value related to the energy gap of the FQH phase, the mostenergetically favorable state can have a quasiparticle localized on thejth dot, so it can act as a trap for such a quasiparticle. Forsimplicity, we primarily consider the etched holes defining the dots tobe circular with radius R_(D), which would yield potential wells at eachdot that are nearly circularly symmetric. Numerical simulations havedemonstrated that circular potential wells energetically favorlocalization of the “fundamental” quasiparticle, which has the minimalquasiparticle charge Qqp. For non-Abelian FQH states, the fundamentalquasiparticle is also a non-Abelian anyon, as desired. For example, inthe Moore-Read state at v=½, the fundamental quasiparticles haveelectric charge

$\pm \frac{e}{4}$

and carry non-Abelian Ising charge σ; in the Z₃ Read-Rezayi state atv=⅗, the fundamental quasiparticles have electric charge

$\pm \frac{e}{5}$

and carry non-abelian Fibonacci charge ε.

However, a given dot-defining aperture can alternatively be etched tohave a different, non-circular geometry. The precise profile of thepotential well of the corresponding quantum dot depends on the choice ofgeometry, so this design freedom can be used to achieve a desiredeffect, such as making the potential well more energetically favorablefor localizing a particular quasiparticle type. Such customizedpotential well geometries can also be implemented in a tunable way usingan array of gates at each dot's aperture, and can be dynamically varied.FIG. 17 illustrates an example with multiple gates 1711-1715 situated ataperture 1775 of a single quantum dot.

9. Intermediate States

When, the dot potentials must pass through a range that energeticallyfavors the localization of other quasiparticle types in order tocontinuously tune between the off configuration of a dot (with nolocalized quasiparticle) and the configuration localizing aquasiparticle of type a. In this case, the intermediate states, whichcorrespond to localizing other quasiparticle types on both dots, willenter the low-energy theory when tuning between these configurations.This situation is conceptually no different than a two-level operationdescribed in context of Equation (2). Indeed, one can typicallydecompose a complex operation involving intermediate states into asequence of tuning steps, each of which can be described using Equation(2).

XVIII. Example Determination of Topological Invariants

Fusion and braiding properties of non-Abelian quasiparticles can becharacterized by a unitary modular tensory category (UMTC) havingparameters known in the art as “F-symbols” and “R-symbols,” which aretopological invariants of a system. It can be desirable to determinethese parameters experimentally in order to design effective computingoperations or to establish the performance of an instant quantumcomputing device.

The disclosed technologies include computation and modificationoperations which can be used, as described herein, for creating,manipulating, or measuring quasiparticles that are localized within thebulk of a topological material or quantum computing system. While alocalized quasiparticle can carry a definite value of topologicalcharge, disclosed operations can also give rise to superpositions ofstates. Particularly, operations on non-Abelian quasiparticles can giverise to transient non-localized superpositions of states, as a result ofwhich the disclosed operations can also be used to determine thecontrolling F-symbols or R-symbols and thereby characterize a giventopological quantum computing device.

Table 3 lists a set of characterization operations (co):

TABLE 3 Operations for device characterization No. Operation co1Localization of a quasiparticle with specific topological charge value.Localization of a quasiparticle in the bulk material can be implementedusing a local pinning potential that energetically favors one particulartopological charge value. co2 Measurement of the collective topologicalcharge of pairs of quasiparticles. co3 Moving localized quasiparticlesthrough the bulk material. Moving quasiparticles though the bulkmaterial can be done with adiabatic transport that moves the locationsof pinning potentials. co4 Splitting one localized quasiparticle intotwo separate quasiparticles with specific topological charge values.Splitting a quasiparticle into two quasiparticles can be done using anadiabatic process where the initial pinning potential is adiabaticallytransformed into two separate, appropriately chosen pinning potentials.The topological charge values involved in a splitting processes can beassured can respect the fusion rules and avoid spawning strayquasiparticles. Pair-creation from vacuum can be considered a specialcase of a splitting operation, starting from a trivial vacuum state.

In order to characterize a device, in some embodiments the measurementof the topological charge of pairs of quasiparticles can distinguishbetween all available distinct fusion channels. This can involve acalibration of the measurements to identify the signatures of thepossible topological charge values, which can be done with a precedingset of calibration procedures. For example, calibration procedures canbe performed using a calibration measurement of some local quantity thatis correlated with the topological charge, such as a localized energydensity or charge distribution. Generally, two quasiparticles can bemoved into sufficiently close proximity of each other to supportinteraction, and then the local calibration measurement can beperformed. The proximal distance between quasiparticles required for ameasurement can be set according to the reach of an instant measurementdevice.

In further examples, the fusion channel, topological charge, orcalibration measurements could potentially be performed via nonlocalmethods, such as interferometry or other measurement devices capable ofcoherently coupling across distances that are long compared to thecorrelation length. Such nonlocal methods can also enable measurement ofthe collective fusion channels of not just pairs of quasiparticles, butclusters of three or more quasiparticles. However, nonlocal measurementsare not required, and local measurements (e.g. capacitance measurement)can be used for characterizing a device and its UMTC properties.

Fusion of two quasiparticles can be regarded as a combination of (3)moving localized particles to a common location and (2) measuring thecollective topological charge at the common location. Accordingly,fusion is omitted from the list 1-4 above. Moreover, the operations of(3) moving and (4) splitting quasiparticles are not required for devicecharacterization operations. One or both of (3) moving and (4) splittingcan be omitted from some embodiments or can be retained in otherembodiments. In some examples, (1) localization of quasiparticles and(2) pairwise measurements of their topological charge can suffice fordevice characterization. Still further, tunable interactions can also beincluded as an alternate operation for device characterization.

As an alternative to moving or splitting a quasiparticle (includinginitialization) using adiabatic transport, anyonic teleportation ormeasurement-only methods can be used equivalently. In such examples,interferometric methods can be used to perform collective topologicalcharge measurement of multiple quasiparticles. Alternatively, an instantcomputing device can be restricted to initial states that can be createdby pairwise measurements in Abelian fusion channels. In certainexamples, transport operations can be better suited to elucidatingbraiding properties as compared to measurement-only operations.

With topological protection, i.e. with quasiparticles kept isolatedexcept while interacting, device characterization operations can berobust. That is, devices can be accurately characterized without preciseknowledge of a governing Hamiltonian, fine-tuned control of the basicoperations, or special care to avoid confounding geometric or dynamicalphases. This robustness arises because the localized topological chargesare not superposed, but can be moved and split deterministically, whilethe topologically protected non-local state space is probed. Diabaticcorrections associated with performing transport in finite time and alsobe suppressed, albeit with polynomial rather than exponential scaling.Moreover, Ocneanu rigidity ensures that, for a given set of fusionrules, there are a finite number of possible UMTCs whose correspondingtopological invariants differ by discrete amounts. Thus, error bars onmeasured quantities can be made small enough, e.g. through repeatedmeasurements, to allow distinguishing candidate UMTC models to anydesired confidence level.

As an example, a device can be initialized to have an a a′ pair ofconjugate quasiparticles formed from a first vacuum channel and anotherb b′ pair of conjugate quasiparticles formed from a second vacuumchannel. To illustrate with reference to FIG. 10A, quantum dots 1011,1013, 1015, 1017 can respectively be initialized with the a′, a, b, b′quasiparticles. Repeated fusion measurement on dots 1013, 1015 canprovide the distribution of probabilities Pab(c) for various values ofc, thus establishing the fusion rules for initial topological charges a,b. Similar fusion measurements can map out fusion rules for otherinitial configurations. Particularly, repeating the described procedurefor all possible values of a, b allows determination of fusioncoefficients Ncab and the quantum dimension da. Accordingly, practicalcomputation operations can be developed for the instant quantumcomputing device and other devices of a similar configuration.

In some examples, distances between quasiparticles can be varied, suchas with dot electrodes of variable size. In such examples, similarprocedures can be extended to determine the correlation length of agiven quasiparticle, which can also be valuable for designing efficientcomputation sequences.

XIX. Example Computing Environments

FIG. 18 illustrates a generalized example of a suitable classicalcomputing environment 1800 in which aspects of the described embodimentscan be implemented. The computing environment 1800 is not intended tosuggest any limitation as to the scope of use or functionality of thedisclosed technology, as the techniques and tools described herein canbe implemented in diverse general-purpose or special-purposeenvironments that have computing hardware.

With reference to FIG. 18, the computing environment 1800 includes atleast one processing device 1810 and memory 1820. In FIG. 18, this mostbasic configuration 1830 is included within a dashed line. Theprocessing device 1810 (e.g., a CPU or microprocessor) executescomputer-executable instructions. In a multi-processing system, multipleprocessing devices execute computer-executable instructions to increaseprocessing power. The memory 1820 may be volatile memory (e.g.,registers, cache, RAM, DRAM, SRAM), non-volatile memory (e.g., ROM,EEPROM, flash memory), or some combination of the two. The memory 1820stores software 1880 implementing tools for performing any of thedisclosed techniques for operating a quantum computer as describedherein. The memory 1820 can also store software 1880 for synthesizing,generating, or compiling programs for performing any of the disclosedtechniques.

The computing environment can have additional features. For example, thecomputing environment 1800 includes storage 1840, one or more inputdevices 1850, one or more output devices 1860, and one or morecommunication connections 1870. An interconnection mechanism (notshown), such as a bus, controller, or network, interconnects thecomponents of the computing environment 1800. Typically, operatingsystem software (not shown) provides an operating environment for othersoftware executing in the computing environment 1800, and coordinatesactivities of the components of the computing environment 1800.

The storage 1840 can be removable or non-removable, and includes one ormore magnetic disks (e.g., hard drives), solid state drives (e.g., flashdrives), magnetic tapes or cassettes, CD-ROMs, DVDs, or any othertangible non-volatile storage medium which can be used to storeinformation and which can be accessed within the computing environment1800. The storage 1840 can also store instructions for the software 1880implementing any of the disclosed techniques. The storage 1840 can alsostore instructions for the software 1880 for generating and/orsynthesizing any of the described techniques, systems, or quantumcircuits.

The input device(s) 1850 can be a touch input device such as a keyboard,touchscreen, mouse, pen, trackball, a voice input device, a scanningdevice, or another device that provides input to the computingenvironment 1800. The output device(s) 1860 can be a display device(e.g., a computer monitor, laptop display, smartphone display, tabletdisplay, netbook display, or touchscreen), printer, speaker, or anotherdevice that provides output from the computing environment 1800.

The communication connection(s) 1870 enable communication over acommunication medium to another computing entity. The communicationmedium conveys information such as computer-executable instructions orother data in a modulated data signal. A modulated data signal is asignal that has one or more of its characteristics set or changed insuch a manner as to encode information in the signal. By way of example,and not limitation, communication media include wired or wirelesstechniques implemented with an electrical, optical, RF, infrared,acoustic, or other carrier.

As noted, the various methods and techniques for performing any of thedisclosed technologies, for controlling a quantum computing device, toperform circuit design or compilation/synthesis as disclosed herein canbe described in the general context of computer-readable instructionsstored on one or more computer-readable media. Computer-readable mediaare any available media (e.g., memory or storage device) that can beaccessed within or by a computing environment. Computer-readable mediainclude tangible computer-readable memory or storage devices, such asmemory 1820 and/or storage 1840, and do not include propagating carrierwaves or signals per se (tangible computer-readable memory or storagedevices do not include propagating carrier waves or signals per se).Computer-readable media do not include communication media.

Various embodiments of the methods disclosed herein can also bedescribed in the general context of computer-executable instructions(such as those included in program modules) being executed in acomputing environment by a processor. Generally, program modules includeroutines, programs, libraries, objects, classes, components, datastructures, and so on, that perform particular tasks or implementparticular abstract data types. The functionality of the program modulesmay be combined or split between program modules as desired in variousembodiments. Computer-executable instructions for program modules may beexecuted within a local or distributed computing environment.

An example of a possible network topology 1900 (e.g., a client-servernetwork) for implementing a system according to the disclosed technologyis depicted in FIG. 19. Networked computing device 1920 can be, forexample, a computer running a browser or other software connected to anetwork 1912. The computing device 1920 can have a computer architectureas shown in FIG. 18 and discussed above. The computing device 1920 isnot limited to a traditional personal computer but can comprise othercomputing hardware configured to connect to and communicate with anetwork 1912 (e.g., smart phones, laptop computers, tablet computers, orother mobile computing devices, servers, network devices, dedicateddevices, and the like). Further, the computing device 1920 can comprisean FPGA or other programmable logic device. In the illustratedembodiment, the computing device 1920 is configured to communicate witha computing device 1930 (e.g., a remote server, such as a server in acloud computing environment) via a network 1912. In the illustratedembodiment, the computing device 1920 is configured to transmit inputdata to the computing device 1930, and the computing device 1930 isconfigured to implement a technique for controlling a quantum computingdevice to perform any of the disclosed embodiments and/or a techniquefor operating quantum circuits for performing any of the techniquesdisclosed herein. The computing device 1930 can output results to thecomputing device 1920. Any of the data received from the computingdevice 1930 can be stored or displayed on the computing device 1920(e.g., displayed as data on a graphical user interface or web page atthe computing devices 1920). In the illustrated embodiment, theillustrated network 1912 can be implemented as a Local Area Network(“LAN”) using wired networking (e.g., the Ethernet IEEE standard 802.3or other appropriate standard) or wireless networking (e.g. one of theIEEE standards 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, or 802.11n or otherappropriate standard). Alternatively, at least part of the network 1912can be the Internet or a similar public network and operate using anappropriate protocol (e.g., the HTTP protocol).

Another example of a possible network topology 2000 (e.g., a distributedcomputing environment) for implementing a system according to thedisclosed technology is depicted in FIG. 20. Networked computing device2020 can be, for example, a computer running a browser or other softwareconnected to a network 312. The computing device 320 can have a computerarchitecture as shown in FIG. 18 and discussed above. In the illustratedembodiment, the computing device 2020 is configured to communicate withmultiple computing devices 2030, 2031, 2032 (e.g., remote servers orother distributed computing devices, such as one or more servers in acloud computing environment) via the network 2012. In the illustratedembodiment, each of the computing devices 2030, 2031, 2032 in thecomputing environment 2000 is used to perform at least a portion of thedisclosed technology and/or at least a portion of the technique forcontrolling a quantum computing device to perform any of the disclosedembodiments and/or a technique for operating quantum circuits forperforming any of the techniques disclosed herein. In other words, thecomputing devices 2030, 2031, 2032 form a distributed computingenvironment in which aspects of the techniques for performing any of thetechniques as disclosed herein are shared across multiple computingdevices. The computing device 2020 is configured to transmit input datato the computing devices 2030, 2031, 2032, which are configured todistributively implement a process, including performance of any of thedisclosed methods, and to provide results to the computing device 2020.Any of the data received from the computing devices 2030, 2031, 2032 canbe stored or displayed on the computing device 2020 (e.g., displayed asdata on a graphical user interface or web page at the computing devices2020). The illustrated network 2012 can be any of the networks discussedabove with respect to FIG. 19.

With reference to FIG. 21, an exemplary system for implementing thedisclosed technology includes computing environment 2100. In computingenvironment 2100, a quantum computer circuit description (includingquantum circuits for performing any of the disclosed techniques asdisclosed herein) can be used to program (or configure) one or morequantum processing units such that the quantum processing unit(s)implement operations according to the quantum computer circuitdescription.

The environment 2100 includes one or more quantum processing units 2102and one or more readout device(s) 2108. The quantum processing unit(s)execute quantum operations that are precompiled and conform to thequantum computer circuit description. The quantum processing unit(s) canbe one or more of, but are not limited to: (a) a superconducting quantumcomputer; (b) a quantum dot based quantum computer; (c) a fault-tolerantarchitecture for quantum computing; and/or (d) a topological quantumarchitecture (e.g., a topological quantum computing device usingfractional quantum Hall states). The precompiled quantum operations canbe sent into (or otherwise applied to) the quantum processing unit(s)via control lines 2106 at the control of quantum processor controller2120. The quantum processor controller (QP controller) 2120 can operatein conjunction with a classical processor 2110 (e.g., having anarchitecture as described above with respect to FIG. 18) to implementthe desired quantum computing process. In the illustrated example, theQP controller 2120 further implements the desired quantum computingprocess via one or more QP subcontrollers 2104 that are speciallyadapted to control a corresponding one of the quantum processor(s) 2102.For instance, in one example, the quantum controller 2120 facilitatesimplementation of the compiled quantum operations by sendinginstructions to one or more memories (e.g., lower-temperature memories),which then pass the instructions to low-temperature control unit(s)(e.g., QP subcontroller(s) 2104) that transmit, for instance, pulsesequences representing the gates to the quantum processing unit(s) 2102for implementation. In other examples, the QP controller(s) 2120 and QPsubcontroller(s) 2104 operate to provide appropriate magnetic fields,encoded operations, or other such control signals to the quantumprocessor(s) to implement the operations of the compiled quantumcomputer circuit description. The quantum controller(s) can furtherinteract with readout devices 2108 to help control and implement thedesired quantum computing process (e.g., by reading or measuring outdata results from the quantum processing units once available, etc.)

With reference to FIG. 21, compilation is the process of translating ahigh-level description of a quantum algorithm into a quantum computerprogram comprising a sequence of quantum operations with gates, whichcan include the devices or circuits as disclosed herein (e.g., thedevices or circuits configured to perform one or more of the proceduresas disclosed herein). The compilation can be performed by a compiler2122 using a classical processor 2110 (e.g., as shown in FIG. 21) of theenvironment 2100 which loads the high-level description from memory orstorage devices 2112 and stores the resulting quantum computer programin the memory or storage devices 2112.

In other embodiments, compilation and/or verification can be performedremotely by a remote computer 2160 (e.g., a computer having a computingenvironment as described above with respect to FIG. 18) which stores theresulting quantum computer program in one or more memory or storagedevices 2162 and transmits the quantum computer program to the computingenvironment 2100 for implementation in the quantum processing unit(s)2102. Still further, the remote computer 2100 can store the high-leveldescription in the memory or storage devices 2162 and transmit thehigh-level description to the computing environment 2100 for compilationand use with the quantum processor(s). In any of these scenarios,results from the computation performed by the quantum processor(s) canbe communicated to the remote computer after and/or during thecomputation process. Still further, the remote computer can communicatewith the QP controller(s) 2120 such that the quantum computing process(including any compilation, verification, and QP control procedures) canbe remotely controlled by the remote computer 2160. In general, theremote computer 2160 communicates with the QP controller(s) 2120,compiler/synthesizer 2122, and/or verification tool 2123 viacommunication connections 2150.

In particular embodiments, the environment 2100 can be a cloud computingenvironment, which provides the quantum processing resources of theenvironment 2100 to one or more remote computers (such as remotecomputer 2160) over a suitable network (which can include the internet).

XX. General Considerations

The disclosed methods, apparatus, and systems should not be construed aslimiting in any way. Instead, the present disclosure is directed towardall novel and nonobvious features and aspects of the various disclosedembodiments, alone or in various combinations and subcombinations withone another. Furthermore, any features or aspects of the disclosedembodiments can be used in various combinations and subcombinations withone another. For example, one or more method acts from one embodimentcan be used with one or more method acts from another embodiment andvice versa. The disclosed methods, apparatus, and systems are notlimited to any specific aspect or feature or combination thereof, nor dothe disclosed embodiments require that any one or more specificadvantages be present or problems be solved.

Various alternatives to the examples described herein are possible. Thevarious aspects of the disclosed technology can be used in combinationor separately. Different embodiments use one or more of the describedinnovations. Some of the innovations described herein address one ormore of the problems noted. Typically, a given technique or tool doesnot solve all such problems.

As used in this application and in the claims, the singular forms “a,”“an,” and “the” include the plural forms unless the context clearlydictates otherwise. Additionally, the term “includes” means “comprises.”Further, as used herein, the terms “or” and “and/or” mean any one itemor combination of any items in the phrase.

XXI. Example Embodiments

The following clauses describe various features and combinations offeatures of various selected embodiments of the disclosed technologies.These clauses are illustrative, and the disclosed technologies are notlimited to such embodiments.

1. A quantum dot comprising an all-van der Waals heterostructure.1.1. The quantum dot of clause 1, wherein the heterostructure comprises:

a plurality of distinct transverse van der Waals layers stackedvertically as a layer stack comprising, in order: a bottom electrodelayer, a bottom dielectric layer, an active layer, a top dielectriclayer, and a top electrode layer; and

a dot electrode positioned over the top dielectric layer at an openingin the top electrode layer.

1.2. The quantum dot of clause 1.1, wherein the active layer supportsnon-Abelian topological phases.1.3. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.2, wherein the activelayer comprises a graphene monolayer, a graphene bilayer, or atransition metal dichalcogenide.1.4. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.3, wherein the bottomdielectric layer or the top dielectric layer comprises boron nitride ora transition metal dichalcogenide.1.5. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.4, wherein the bottomelectrode layer or the top electrode layer comprises graphite.1.6. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.5, wherein the dotelectrode comprises graphite or a metal.1.7. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.6, wherein at least oneof the transverse van der Waals layers has a respective basal planeparallel to the respective transverse van der Waals layer.1.8. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.7, wherein the activelayer comprises a transition metal dichalcogenide having a thicknessbetween 1 nm and 20 nm.1.9. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.8, wherein the bottomdielectric layer or the top dielectric layer has a layer thicknessbetween 10 nm and 200 nm.1.10. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.9, wherein the bottomelectrode layer, the top electrode layer, or the dot electrode has athickness between 0.3 nm and 2 nm, or between 2 nm and 100 nm.1.11. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.10, wherein atransverse extent of a portion of the dot electrode not shielded byelectrode material of the top electrode layer is between 10 nm and 30nm, or between 30 nm and 300 nm.1.12. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.11, wherein a portionof the dot electrode not shielded by electrode material of the topelectrode layer has an aspect ratio between 1:1 and 1.2:1, or between1.5:1 and 10:1.1.13. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.12, wherein the dotelectrode comprises a material conductive at a predetermined operatingtemperature of the quantum dot structure.1.14. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.13, wherein the dotelectrode is formed within the top electrode layer.1.15. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.13, wherein the dotelectrode is formed above the top electrode layer.1.16. The quantum dot of clause 1.15, further comprising a spacerbetween the top electrode layer and the dot electrode.1.17. The quantum dot of clause 1.16, wherein the spacer comprises a vander Waals material, boron nitride, a transition metal dichalcogenide, ora same material as the top dielectric layer.1.18. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.16-1.17, wherein thespacer has a thickness between 1 and 10 nm.1.19. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1.1-1.18, further comprisingrespective electrical leads coupled to the bottom electrode layer, theactive layer, the top electrode layer, and the dot electrode.1.20. The quantum dot of any of clauses 1-1.19, wherein the dotelectrode is a first dot electrode and further comprising one or moreadditional dot electrodes positioned above respective portions of theopening in the top electrode layer.1.21. The quantum dot of clause 1.20, wherein the first and additionaldot electrodes are configured to be individually controlled.1.22. The quantum dot of clause 1.20, wherein a transverse extent orshape of a quasiparticle localized at the quantum dot is configurable byindividual control of the first and additional dot electrodes.1.23. The quantum dot of any one of clauses 1-1.22, wherein thenon-Abelian topological phases are fractional quantum Hall states.1.24. An array of quantum dots comprising the quantum dot of any one ofclauses 1.1-1.23, and further comprising:

two or more additional dot electrodes over respective additionalopenings in the top electrode layer;

wherein the heterostructure defines an array of quantum dots.

1.25. A qubit comprising the array of quantum dots of clause 1.24.1.26. The qubit of clause 1.25, wherein the array of quantum dotscomprises four primary quantum dots.1.27. The qubit of clause 1.26, wherein the array of quantum dotscomprises three intermediate quantum dots respectively positionedbetween successive pairs of the four primary quantum dots.1.28. The qubit of clause 1.27, further comprising three ancillaryquantum dots positioned to couple respectively with the successive pairsof the four primary quantum dots via additional intermediate quantumdots.1.29. A topological quantum computer comprising a plurality of thequbits of any one of clauses 1.25-1.28.1.30. The topological quantum computer of clause 1.29, wherein theplurality of qubits is arranged as a quasilinear array of qubits.1.31. The topological quantum computer of clause 1.30, wherein thequasilinear array has an aspect ratio in a range 50:1 to 10000:1.1.32. The topological quantum computer of clause 1.29, wherein theplurality of qubits is arranged as a two-dimensional array of qubitshaving length and width independently selectable in a range of two to10,000 qubits.1.33. The topological quantum computer of clause 1.32, wherein thetwo-dimensional array has width of at least two qubits and a lengthgreater than or equal to the width.1.34. The topological quantum computer of any one of clauses 1.29-1.33,further comprising:

a magnet configured to impose a magnetic field on the qubits;

power supplies configured to apply respective voltages to the bottomelectrode layer, the active layer, and the top electrode layer;

control electronics configured to apply respective voltages to the firstdot electrode or the additional dot electrodes to:

-   -   initialize a plurality of non-Abelian quasiparticles on the        qubits;    -   perform computation operations on one or more of the qubits; or    -   read fusion outputs of two or more of the non-Abelian        quasiparticles; and

cryogenics to maintain the qubits within a predetermined operatingtemperature range.

1.35. A method of manufacturing the heterostructure of any one ofclauses 1-1.23, comprising:

epitaxially growing, laminating, or depositing successive layers of thelayer stack on a substrate or on a preceding layer of the layer stack;and

forming the dot electrode over an opening in the top electrode layer.

2. A quantum dot array comprising:

a plurality of quantum dots including first, intermediate, and secondquantum dots independently configurable to support a given type ofnon-Abelian anyon under respective electromagnetic field environments,with the intermediate quantum dot further configurable between itsrespective electromagnetic field environment and an OFF state;

wherein, in a first case with the first and second quantum dots undertheir respective electromagnetic field environments and the intermediatequantum dot in the OFF state, a first tunneling barrier for the giventype of non-Abelian anyon, between the first quantum dot and the secondquantum dot, is above a first limit; and

wherein, in a second case with the first and intermediate quantum dotsunder their respective electromagnetic field environments, a secondtunneling barrier for the given type of non-Abelian anyon, between thefirst quantum dot and the intermediate quantum dot, is below a secondthreshold.

2.1. The quantum dot array of clause 2, wherein one or more of thefirst, intermediate, or second quantum dots are according to any one ofclauses 1-1.23.2.2. The quantum dot array of any one of clauses 2-2.1, wherein thefirst, intermediate, and second quantum dots share a common active layeror a common layer stack.2.3. The quantum dot array of any one of clauses 2-2.2, wherein thefirst and intermediate quantum dots are proximate, and furthercomprising additional quantum dots arranged to form a linear sequence ofquantum dots from the intermediate quantum dot to the second quantumdot.2.4. A sequence of three or more quantum dot arrays of any one ofclauses 2-2.3 arranged in a loop, wherein the second quantum dot of agiven quantum dot array of the sequence is the first quantum dot of animmediately following quantum dot array of the sequence.2.5. A sequence of N≥3 quantum dot arrays of any one of clauses 2-2.4sequentially indexed from 1 to N, wherein the second quantum dots ofquantum dot arrays 1:N−1 of the sequence are the first quantum dots ofquantum dot arrays 2:N of the sequence.2.6. A method of operating the quantum dot array of any one of clauses2-2.3, comprising:

configuring the quantum dot array with a first non-Abelian anyon of thegiven type localized at the first quantum dot, and the intermediatequantum dot in the OFF state;

adjusting the electromagnetic field environment of the intermediatequantum dot to decrease the first tunneling barrier below the secondthreshold to cause transport of the first non-Abelian anyon from thefirst quantum dot to the second quantum dot.

2.7. The method of clause 2.6, wherein the adjusting results in amonotonic energy profile across an extent of the intermediate quantumdot.2.8. A method of operating the quantum dot array of any one of clauses2-2.3, comprising:

configuring the quantum dot array in a first state with first and secondnon-Abelian anyons of the given type respectively localized at the firstand second quantum dots, and the intermediate quantum dot in the OFFstate;

adjusting the electromagnetic field environment of the intermediatequantum dot to cause respective interaction strengths for a plurality ofpredetermined fusion channels of the first and second non-Abeliananyons; and

subsequently reversing the adjusting to restore the first and secondnon-Abelian anyons to be respectively localized at the first and secondquantum dots, in a second state;

wherein the first and second non-Abelian anyons in the second state haverespective phase shifts relative to the first state that are dependenton the selected fusion rule.

2.9. The method of clause 2.8, wherein the adjusting and subsequentreversing are performed adiabatically.2.10. A method of operating the quantum dot array of any one of clauses2-2.3, comprising:

configuring the quantum dot array in a first state with first and secondnon-Abelian anyons of the given type respectively localized at the firstand second quantum dots, and the intermediate quantum dot in the OFFstate;

adjusting the electromagnetic field environment of the intermediatequantum dot to cause respective interaction strengths for a plurality ofpredetermined fusion channels of the first and second non-Abeliananyons; and

during the adjusting, performing a measurement on the quantum dot arrayto identify one among the predetermined fusion channels.

2.11. The method of clause 2.10, wherein the measurement is anelectrical measurement of capacitance between a pair of dots of thequantum dot array.2.12. The method of clause 2.11, wherein the performing the measurementcomprises detecting a shift in resonant frequency of a microwaveresonator coupled to the pair of dots.2.13. The method of any one of clauses 2.6-2.12, wherein the adjustingthe electromagnetic field environment of the intermediate quantum dot isaccompanied by:

adjusting the electromagnetic field environment of the first or secondquantum dot.

2.14. One or more computer-readable media storing instructionsexecutable by one or more hardware processors, the instructionscomprising:

first instructions which, upon execution, cause performance of themethod of any one of clauses 2.6-2.7;

second instructions which, upon execution, cause performance of themethod of any one of clauses 2.8-2.9; and

third instructions which, upon execution, cause performance of themethod of any one of clauses 2.10-2.12.

2.15. The method of clause 2.10, wherein the measurement is a magneticmeasurement of inductance shift between a pair of quasiparticles,obtained by magnetic coupling of microwaves.3. A method of manufacturing a heterostructure, comprising:

forming a succession of van der Waals layers above a substrate, the vander Waals layers comprising a bottom electrode layer, a bottomdielectric layer, an active layer, a top dielectric layer, a topdielectric layer, and a top electrode layer; and forming a dot electrodeat an opening in the top electrode layer.

3.1. The method of clause 3, wherein the active layer comprises amaterial that can support non-Abelian topological phases.3.2. The method of clause 3, wherein the van der Waals layers are formedin the order: bottom electrode layer, bottom dielectric layer, activelayer, top dielectric layer, and top electrode layer, and the methodfurther comprises:

forming an electrically insulating spacer above the top electrode layerprior to forming the dot electrode.

3.3. The method of clause 3, wherein the van der Waals layers are formedin the order: top electrode layer, top dielectric layer, active layer,bottom dielectric layer, and bottom electrode layer, and the methodfurther comprises:

forming an electrically insulating spacer above the dot electrode priorto forming the top electrode layer.

3.4. The method of any one of clauses 3-3.3, wherein one or more of theforming operations are performed by deposition, exfoliation, lamination,or epitaxial growth.3.5. The method of any one of clauses 3-3.4, further comprising etchingthe opening in the top electrode layer.3.6. The method of any one of clauses 3-3.5, wherein the forming the dotelectrode comprises:

depositing a metal using a lithography technique, wherein the dotelectrode comprises the metal; or

epitaxially growing, laminating, or depositing a non-metallic material,wherein the dot electrode comprises the non-metallic material, andetching the non-metallic layer to delineate a perimeter of the dotelectrode.

3.7. The method of any one of clauses 3-3.6, wherein the heterostructuredefines a quantum dot.3.8. The method of any one of clauses 3.7, wherein the quantum dot isaccording to any one of clauses 1-1.23.3.9. The method of any one of clauses 3-3.8, wherein the dot electrodeis a first dot electrode, the opening is a first opening, and the methodfurther comprises:

forming a second dot electrode over a second opening in the topelectrode layer; and

forming an intermediate dot electrode over an intermediate opening inthe top electrode layer;

wherein the heterostructure is a quantum dot array according to any oneof clauses 2-2.3, with the first, intermediate, and second dotelectrodes being control electrodes of the first, intermediate, andsecond quantum dots respectively.

3.10. One or more computer-readable media storing instructions which,when executed by one or more hardware processors, cause the processorsto control one or more manufacturing tools to perform the method of anyone of clauses 3-3.9.4. An all-van der Waals heterostructure comprising:

a layer stack of transverse van der Waals layers stacked vertically on asubstrate, the layers comprising, in order:

-   -   a bottom electrode comprising graphite with a thickness in a        first range 3-30 nm inclusive;    -   a bottom insulator comprising boron nitride with a thickness in        a second range 20-100 nm inclusive;    -   a graphene bilayer;    -   a top insulator comprising boron nitride with a thickness in a        third range 20-100 nm inclusive; and    -   a top electrode comprising graphite with a thickness in a fourth        range 3-30 nm inclusive and having an aperture;    -   an electrically-insulating spacer having a thickness in a fifth        range 2-5 nm inclusive above the top electrode and the aperture;

a dot electrode comprising a metal or graphite formed above the spacerand the aperture; and

respective electrical leads coupled to the bottom electrode, thegraphene bilayer, the top electrode, and the dot electrode.

4.1. The all-van der Waals heterostructure of clause 4, wherein the dotelectrode is a first dot electrode, and further comprising additionaldot electrodes, wherein the first and additional dot electrodes areconfigured to individually control respective quantum dots in theall-van der Waals heterostructure.5. A quantum computer comprising:

a coupled plurality of qubits formed as a quasilinear array of quantumdots, the quasilinear array having an aspect ratio in a range 50:1 to10000:1;

wherein the array of quantum dots is configured to support localizednon-Abelian quasiparticles; and

wherein the array of quantum dots comprises computational quantum dotsand control quantum dots, each of the control quantum dots configured tocontrol a tunneling barrier between a respective pair of thecomputational quantum dots.

5.1. The quantum computer of clause 5, wherein the array of quantum dotscomprises a van der Waals heterostructure.5.2. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5-5, wherein at leastone of the supported non-Abelian topological phases has an energy gapgreater than 1.0 K, 1.5 K, 2.0 K, 2.5 K, or 3.0 K times Boltzmann'sconstant.5.3. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5-5.2, wherein theplurality of qubits is a number N of physical qubits forming N logicalqubits.5.4. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5-5.3, wherein a givenone of the qubits comprises a number C of the computational quantumdots, wherein the number C is 3, 4, or in a range 5-8.5.5. The quantum computer of clause 5.4, wherein third dots of the arrayof quantum dots, distinct from the computational quantum dots and thecontrol quantum dots, are configured to store ancillary quasiparticles,and the given qubit comprises a number A of the third dots, wherein A<C.5.6. The quantum computer of clause 5.5, wherein additional control dotsof the array of quantum dots are each positioned between a respectiveone of the computational quantum dots and a respective one of the thirddots, and each of the additional control dots is configured to control atunneling barrier between its respective computational quantum dot andits respective third dot.5.7. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5.5-5.6, wherein A=C−1and the given qubit comprises a number I of the control dots, wherein Iis at least 3. C−3.5.8. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5-5.7, furthercomprising control electronics coupled to the array of quantum dots andconfigured to perform a first set of topologically protected computationoperations on a given one of the qubits.5.9. The quantum computer of clause 5.8, wherein the first set oftopologically protected computation operations is computationallyuniversal.5.10. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5.8-5.9, wherein thecontrol electronics is further configured to perform a second set oftopologically protected operations on a given neighboring pair of thequbits.5.11. The quantum computer of any one of clauses 5.8-5.10, wherein thefirst set of topologically protected operations comprises:

initialization of respective quasiparticles at two or more computationalquantum dots of the given qubit;

measurement of a fusion outcome for two quasiparticles at respectivecomputational quantum dots of the given qubit; and

one or more of the following operations:

-   -   transport of a quasiparticle among the computational quantum        dots of the given qubit to a fourth computational quantum dot of        the given qubit; or    -   tunable interaction between two quasiparticles on respective        quantum dots of the given qubit.        5.12. The quantum computer of clause 5.11, wherein the first set        of topologically protected operations comprises the transport        operations, and the control electronics is configured to perform        a braiding operation on the given qubit using a sequence of the        transport operations.        5.13. The quantum computer of clause 5.11, wherein the first set        of topologically protected operations comprises the tunable        interaction operations, and the control electronics is        configured to perform a braiding operation on the given qubit        using a sequence of the tunable interaction operations.        5.14. The quantum computer of clause 5.11, wherein the control        electronics is configured to perform a braiding operation on the        given qubit using a sequence of the measurement operations.        6. A method comprising:

applying signals to control electrodes of first and second quantum dotsof a qubit, to initialize first and second quasiparticles, which arenon-Abelian topological quasiparticles localized at the first and secondquantum dots respectively; and

changing a voltage applied to a control electrode of a third quantumdot, positioned between the first quantum dot and a fourth quantum dot,of the qubit to decrease a tunneling barrier for the first quasiparticlebetween the first quantum dot and the fourth quantum dot and cause thefirst quasiparticle to be transported from the first quantum dot to thefourth quantum dot.

6.1. The method of clause 6, wherein the changing the voltage results ina monotonic energy profile across a transverse extent of the thirdquantum dot.6.2. The method of any one of clauses 6-6.1, further comprising:

changing a voltage applied to a control electrode of a fifth quantum dotof the qubit to increase a probability for the second quasiparticle tointeract with a third quasiparticle localized at a sixth quantum dot ofthe qubit.

6.3. The method of clause 6.2, further comprising:

measuring a fusion output of the second and third quasiparticles as thesecond and third quasiparticles interact.

6.4. The method of any one of clauses 6-6.3, further comprising:

braiding the first and second quasiparticles through a succession oftransport operations, interaction operations, or fusion outputmeasurement operations.

6.5. One or more computer-readable media storing instructions which,when executed by one or more hardware processors, cause the processorsto control one or more manufacturing tools to perform the method of anyone of clauses 6-6.4.7. One or more computer-readable media storing executable instructions,executable by one or more hardware processors, and comprising firstinstructions which, when executed, cause:

a first alteration of one or more gate voltages at a set of gates tocreate one or more first tunnel couplings between two or more quantumdots fabricated as a Van der Waals heterostructure, the first tunnelcouplings altering energy levels of two first non-Abelian quasiparticleson the two or more quantum dots, resulting in a hybridization of quantumstates in the quantum system;

measurement of a hybridization energy of the quantum system; and

determination of a joint topological charge of the two first non-Abelianquasiparticles based on the measured hybridization energy.

7.1. The one or more computer-readable media of clause 7, wherein theexecutable instructions further comprise second instructions which, whenexecuted, cause:

a second alteration of one or more gate voltages at the set of gates tocreate one or more second tunnel couplings between the two or morequantum dots, the second tunnel couplings leading to interaction betweentwo second non-Abelian quasiparticles on the two or more quantum dots;and

a reversal of the second alteration.

7.2. The one or more computer-readable media of any one of clauses7-7.1, wherein the executable instructions further comprise thirdinstructions which, when executed, cause:

a third alteration of one or more gate voltages at the set of gates tocreate one or more third tunnel couplings between the two or morequantum dots, the third tunnel couplings leading to transport of a thirdnon-Abelian quasiparticle among the two or more quantum dots.

7.3. The one or more computer-readable media of any one of clauses7-7.2, wherein the two or more quantum dots are three or more quantumdots, and wherein the executable instructions further comprise fourthinstructions which, when executed, cause a braiding transformation onthe three or more quantum dots using the first instructions, the secondinstructions, or the third instructions.

XXII. Concluding Remarks

The disclosed methods, apparatus, and systems should not be construed aslimiting in any way. Instead, the present disclosure is directed towardall novel and nonobvious features and aspects of the various disclosedembodiments, alone and in various combinations and subcombinations withone another. The disclosed methods, apparatus, and systems are notlimited to any specific aspect or feature or combination thereof, nor dothe disclosed embodiments require that any one or more specificadvantages be present or problems be solved.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of thedisclosed technology may be applied, it should be recognized that theillustrated embodiments are examples of the disclosed technology andshould not be taken as a limitation on the scope of the disclosedtechnology.

We claim:
 1. A quantum dot comprising an all-van der Waalsheterostructure.
 2. The quantum dot of claim 1, wherein theheterostructure comprises: a plurality of distinct transverse van derWaals layers stacked vertically as a layer stack comprising, in order: abottom electrode layer, a bottom dielectric layer, an active layer, atop dielectric layer, and a top electrode layer; and a dot electrodepositioned over the top dielectric layer at an opening in the topelectrode layer.
 3. The quantum dot of claim 2, wherein the active layersupports non-Abelian topological phases.
 4. The quantum dot of claim 3,wherein the non-Abelian topological phases are fractional quantum Hallstates.
 5. The quantum dot of claim 2, wherein the active layercomprises a graphene monolayer, a graphene bilayer, or a transitionmetal dichalcogenide.
 6. The quantum dot of claim 2, wherein the bottomdielectric layer or the top dielectric layer comprises boron nitride ora transition metal dichalcogenide.
 7. The quantum dot of claim 2,wherein the bottom electrode layer or the top electrode layer comprisesgraphite.
 8. The quantum dot of claim 2, wherein the dot electrode isformed above the top electrode layer.
 9. The quantum dot of claim 8,further comprising a spacer between the top electrode layer and the dotelectrode.
 10. An array of quantum dots comprising the quantum dot ofclaim 2, and further comprising: two or more additional dot electrodesover respective additional openings in the top electrode layer; whereinthe heterostructure defines an array of quantum dots.
 11. A qubitcomprising the array of quantum dots of claim
 10. 12. A topologicalquantum computer comprising a plurality of the qubits of claim
 11. 13.The topological quantum computer of claim 12, further comprising: amagnet configured to impose a magnetic field on the qubits; at least onepower supply configured to apply respective voltages to the bottomelectrode layer, the active layer, and the top electrode layer; controlelectronics configured to apply respective voltages to the first dotelectrode or the two or more additional dot electrodes to: initialize aplurality of non-Abelian quasiparticles on the qubits; performcomputation operations on one or more of the qubits; or read fusionoutputs of two or more of the non-Abelian quasiparticles; and acryogenic apparatus operable to maintain the qubits within apredetermined operating temperature range.
 14. A method of manufacturinga heterostructure, comprising: forming a succession of van der Waalslayers above a substrate, the van der Waals layers comprising a bottomelectrode layer, a bottom dielectric layer, an active layer, a topdielectric layer, and a top electrode layer; and forming a dot electrodeat an opening in the top electrode layer.
 15. The method of claim 14,wherein one or more of the forming operations are performed bydeposition, exfoliation, lamination, or epitaxial growth.
 16. The methodof claim 14, wherein the heterostructure defines a quantum dot.
 17. Oneor more computer-readable media storing instructions which, whenexecuted by one or more hardware processors, cause the processors tocontrol one or more manufacturing tools to perform the method of claim14.
 18. One or more computer-readable media storing executableinstructions, executable by one or more hardware processors, andcomprising first instructions which, when executed, cause: a firstalteration of one or more gate voltages at a set of gates to create oneor more first tunnel couplings between two or more quantum dotsfabricated as a Van der Waals heterostructure, the first tunnelcouplings altering energy levels of two first non-Abelian quasiparticleson the two or more quantum dots, resulting in a hybridization of quantumstates in a quantum system; measurement of a hybridization energy of thequantum system; and determination of a joint topological charge of thetwo first non-Abelian quasiparticles based on the measured hybridizationenergy.
 19. The one or more computer-readable media of claim 18, whereinthe executable instructions further comprise second instructions which,when executed, cause: a second alteration of one or more gate voltagesat the set of gates to create one or more second tunnel couplingsbetween the two or more quantum dots, the second tunnel couplingsleading to interaction between two second non-Abelian quasiparticles onthe two or more quantum dots; and a reversal of the second alteration.20. The one or more computer-readable media of claim 18, wherein the twoor more quantum dots are three or more quantum dots, and wherein theexecutable instructions further comprise third instructions which, whenexecuted, cause a braiding transformation on the three or more quantumdots using the first instructions or the second instructions.